Vedic civilization
The
Vedic civilization is the culture associated with the
Vedas. Mainstream scholarship places the Vedic civilization into the
2nd and
1st millennia BCE.
Hindu traditions
[themselves dateable to the early centuries CE, with scholars like Aryabhata (5th c.)] suggest dates as early as the
6th millennium BCE. The use of
Vedic Sanskrit continued up to the
6th century BCE, when the culture began to be transformed into classical forms of
Hinduism. This time period in the
history of India is known as the
Vedic period or
Vedic age. Its early phase saw the formation of various
kingdoms of ancient India. In its late phase (from ca. 700 BCE), it saw the rise of the
Mahajanapadas, and was succeeded by the golden age of Hinduism and classical
Sanskrit literature, the
Maurya Empire (from ca. 320 BCE) and the
Middle kingdoms of India.
The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on text-internal details. Linguistically, the Vedic texts could be classified in five chronological strata:
1.
Rigvedic: The
Rigveda is by far the most archaic of the Vedic texts preserved, and it retains many common
Indo-Iranian elements, both in language and in content, that are not present in any other Vedic texts. Its creation must have taken place over several centuries, and apart from the youngest books (1 and 10), it must have been essentially complete by
1500 BCE . Archaeologically, this period may correspond with the
Gandhara Grave culture, and the successors of the
Indus Valley Civilization (IVC),
Cemetery H cultures of the
Punjab and the
Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP) further east. It is undisputed (but particularly emphasized by
Hindu scholars) that there is a strong component of cultural continuity of the indigenous IVC.
 |
Map of early Iron Age Vedic India after Witzel (1989). Realms or tribes are labelled black, Foreign tribes mentioned in early Vedic texts purple, Vedic shakhas in green. Rivers are labelled blue. The Thar desert is marked orange. |
2.
Mantra language: This period includes both the mantra and prose language of the
Atharvaveda (Paippalada and Shaunakiya), the Rigveda
Khilani, the
Samaveda Samhita (containing some 75 mantras not in the Rigveda), and the mantras of the
Yajurveda. These texts are largely derived from the Rigveda, but have undergone certain changes, both by linguistic change and by reinterpretation. Conspicuous changes include change of
vishva "all" by
sarva, and the spread of the
kuru- verbal stem (for Rigvedic
krno-). This is the time of the early
Iron Age in north-western India, corresponding to the
Black and Red Ware (BRW) culture, and the kingdom of the
Kurus, dating from ca. the
12th century BCE.
3.
Samhita prose: This period marks the beginning of the collection and codification of a Vedic canon. An important linguistic change is the complete loss of the
injunctive, of the
subjunctive, and of the
aorist. The commentary part of the
Yajurveda (MS, KS) belongs to this period. Archaeologically, the
Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture from ca.
900 BCE corresponds, and the shift of the political center from the Kurus to the
Pancalas at the
Ganges.
4.
Brahmana prose: The
Brahmanas proper of the four Vedas belong to this period, as well as the oldest of the
Upanishads (
BAU,
ChU,
JUB).
5.
Sutra language: This is the last stratum of Vedic Sanskrit leading up to
500 BCE, comprising the bulk of the
Shrauta and
Grhya Sutras, and some
Upanishads (E.g.
KathU,
MaitrU. Younger Upanishads are post-Vedic).
Videha as a third political center is established.
6.
Epic and Paninian Sanskrit: The language of the
Mahabharata and
Ramayana epics, and the Classical Sanskrit described by
Panini is considered post-Vedic, and belongs to the time after 500 BCE. Archaeologically, the rapid spread of
Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP) over all of northern India corresponds to this period. The
Vedanta, the
Buddha, and the
Pali Prakrit dialect of Buddhist scripture belong to this period.
Historical records set in only after the end of the Vedic period, and remain scarce throughout the Indian Middle Ages. The end of Vedic India is marked by linguistic, cultural and political changes. The grammar of
Panini marks a final apex in the codification of sacred texts, and at the same time the beginning of Classical Sanskrit. The invasion of
Darius I of the Indus valley in the late 6th century BC marks the beginning of outside influence, continued in the kingdoms of the
Indo Greeks, new waves of immigration from
150 BCE (
Abhira,
Shaka), and ultimately the medieval Islamic
Sultans. The most important historical source of the geography of post-Vedic India is the
2nd century Greek historian
Arrian.
See also Rigvedic tribesThe origin of the Vedic civilization and its relation to the
Indus Valley civilization and related cultures and an
Indo-Aryan migration and the
Gandhara Grave culture remains controversial and politically charged in Indian society; see the
Aryan Invasion Theory for details. The
Rigveda is primarily a collection of religious hymns, and allusions to, but not explanation of, various myths and stories, mainly in the younger books 1 and 10. The oldest hymns, probably in books 2–7, although some people hold book 9, the
Soma Mandala, to be even more ancient, contain many elements inherited from pre-Vedic, common
Indo-Iranian society. Therefore, it is difficult to define the precise beginning of the "Rigvedic period", as it emerges seamlessly from the era preceding it. Also, due to the nomadic nature of the society described, it cannot be localized, and in its earliest phase describes tribes that were essentially on the move.
Political organization
The
grama (village),
vis and
jana were political units of the early Vedic Aryans. A
vish was probably a subdivision of a
jana, and a
grama was probably a smaller unit than the other two. The leader of a
grama was called
gramani and that of a
vish was called
vishpati. Another unit was the
gana whose head was a
jyeshta (elder).
The
rashtra (state) was governed by a
rajan (king). The king is often referred to as
gopa (protector) and
samrat (supreme ruler). He governed the people with their consent and approval. It is possible that he was sometimes elected. The
sabha and
samiti were popular councils.
The main duty of the king was to protect the tribe. He was aided by two functionaries, the
purohita (chaplain) and the
senani (army chief;
sena: army). The former not only gave advice to the ruler but also practiced spells and charms for success in war. Soldiers on foot (
patti) and on
chariots (
rathins), armed with bow and arrow were common. The king employed
spasa (spies) and
dutas (messengers). He often got a ceremonial gift,
bali, from the people.
Society and economy
Rig Vedic society was characterized by a
nomadic lifestyle, with
cattle rearing being the chief occupation. Cattle and cows were held in high esteem and frequently appear in Rigvedic hymns; goddesses were often compared to cows, and gods to bulls.
Agriculture grew more prominent with time as the community settled down. Money was unknown, and
bartering with cattle and other valuables replaced financial commerce.
Families were
patrilineal, and people prayed for abundance of sons. Society was strictly organized in a system of
caste. The four major
varnas were
Brahmin,
Kshatriya,
Vaishya and
Shudra. Those who are outside these caste structure are known as
adivasis.
The food of the Rigvedic Aryans consisted of parched grain and cakes, milk and milk products, and various
fruits and
vegetables. Consumption of meat was also common, at least among the upper classes. The Rigveda contains many references to animal sacrifice and meat offered to the gods.
Main article: historical Vedic religion.
These forms of belief are the precursor to modern
Hinduism.Texts considered to date to the Vedic period are mainly the four
Vedas, but the
Brahmanas, and some of the older
Upanishads are also considered Vedic. The Vedas record the
liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the
purohitas. The
Rig-veda is considered to be the oldest written text that is in existence today.
The
rishis, the composers of the hymns of the
Rigveda, were considered divinely inspired seers (or rather "hearers",
shrauta means "what is heard").
The mode of worship was performance of sacrifices and
chanting of verses (see
Vedic chant). The priests helped the common man in performing rituals. People prayed for abundance of children, cattle and wealth.
The main deities of the Vedic
pantheon were
Indra,
Agni (fire), and
Soma. Other deities were
Varuna (the sky),
Surya (the Sun),
Mitra (the friend or ally),
Vayu (the wind). Goddesses included
Ushas (the dawn),
Prithvi (the Earth) and
Aditi (the mother of gods or sometimes the cow). Rivers, especially
Saraswati, were also considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as all-powerful. The relationship between the devotee and the deity was one of transaction, with Agni (the sacrificial fire) taking the role of messenger between the two. Strong traces of a common
Indo-Iranian religion remain visible, especially in the
Soma cult and the fire worship also preserved in
Zoroastrianism. The
Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) has parallels in the
2nd millennium BC Andronovo culture, in India allegedly continued until the 4th century AD.
Rig-Veda advocates prohibition of cow-slaughter in numerous places such as follows :
You should impart love to each other as the non-killable cow doesfor its calf (RgVeda VII.56.17)Punish the killer of the cow and the man.(RgVeda VIII.101.15)Cow is pure, do not kill it.(RgVeda X.10.87.16)
Vegetarianism, the practice now thought by many to be so characteristic of Hinduism, arose as a continuitation of prohibition of cow-slaughter to prohibit eating all animals. This occured in the late Vedic or post-Vedic times, possibly already at the time of Panini: The root-compound
goghan "slaying cattle", in RV 7.56.17 used parallel to
nrhan "slaying men" in reference to the referring to the weapon
vadha of the Maruts,:17c
aaré gohaá nRhaá vadháH vaH astu "far be your cow-slaying, men-slaying weapon!"in Panini is taught to refer to a "receiver of a cow" exclusively; this change occurred parallel to the rise of, and possibly under the influence of,
Buddhism, which began as a reform-movement of some practices of the Vedic religion namely indulgences by priests. In Rig-Veda, Upanishads and later texts, the cow is often described as
aditi and
aghnya (that which should not be killed).[
1]
Vedic religion evolved into the
Hindu paths of
Yoga and
Vedanta, a religious path considering itself the 'essence' of the Vedas, interpreting the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe with God seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of
Ishvara and
Brahman, projected into various deities in the human mind. These post-Vedic systems of thought, along with later texts like
Upanishads, epics (namely
Gita of
Mahabharat)
Brahmanas, have been fully preserved and form the basis of modern Hinduism. The ritualistic traditions of Vedic religion are most faithfully preserved in the conservative
Shrauta tradition.
The transition from the early to the later Vedic period was marked by the emergence of agriculture as the dominant economic activity and a corresponding decline in the significance of cattle rearing. Several changes went hand in hand with this. For instance, several large kingdoms arose because of the increasing importance of land and its protection. The late Vedic period from ca.
500 BC more or less seamlessly blends into the period of the
Middle kingdoms of India known from historical sources.
Kingdoms
16
mahajanapadas (great kingdoms) are referred to in some of the literature. By this time the Aryan tribes had spread from their original home in the west to much of the east and the south. The power of the king greatly increased. Rulers gave themselves titles like
ekarat (the one ruler),
sarvabhumi (ruler of all the earth) and
chakravartin (protector of land). The kings performed sacrifices like
rajasuya, (royal consecration)
vajapeya (drink of strength) and
ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). The coronation ceremony was a major social occasion. Several functionaries came into being in addition to the
purohita and the senani of earlier times. The participation of the people in the activities of the government decreased.
Society
The concept of
varna and the rules of marriage became more rigid, but not yet watertight. The status of the
Brahmins and
Kshatriyas increased greatly. The Brahmins propagated specialization of an extreme order. Functioning as an intellectual bureaucracy, they also restricted social mobility, as in fields of science, war, literature, religion and the environment. The proper enunciation of verses was considered essential for prosperity and success in war and harvests.
Kshatriyas amassed wealth, and commissioned the performance of sacrifices. Kshatriyas administered the state, maintained society and the economy of a kingdom. They also functioned to maintain law and order. They presided over an assembled court of intellectuals and warriors. They distributed the finances of their treasuries, with respect to acts and deeds. They also maintained budgets of the kingdom with the assistance of ministers.
* Bokonyi, S. 1997b. "Horse Remains from the Prehistoric Site of Surkotada, Kutch, Late 3rd Millennium BC.", South Asian Studies 13: 297-307.
*Kocchar, Rajesh,
The Vedic people: their history and geography, Hyderabad: Orient Longmans (1999).
* Lal, B.B. 2005. The Homeland of the Aryans. Evidence of Rigvedic Flora and Fauna & Archaeology, New Delhi, Aryan Books International.
* R.C. Majumdar and others.
An Advanced History of India, MacMillan, 1967.
*
Michael Witzel,
Tracing the Vedic dialects in
Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes ed. Caillat, Paris, 1989, 97–265.
* Michael Witzel,
The Pleiades and the Bears viewed from inside the Vedic texts, EVJS Vol. 5 (1999), issue 2 (December) [
2].
