Wine
Wine is an
alcoholic beverage produced by the
fermentation of the juice of
grapes. Although a number of other
fruits - such as plum, elderberry and blackcurrant - may also be fermented, only grapes are naturally chemically balanced to ferment completely without requiring additional sugars, acids, enzymes or other nutrients. Non-grape wines are called fruit wine or
country wine. Other products made from starch based materials, such as
barley wine,
rice wine, and
sake, are technically
beers. Beverages made from other fermentable material such as honey (
mead), or that are distilled, such as
brandy, are not wines. The
English word
wine and its equivalents in other languages are protected by law in many jurisdictions.
 |
A glass of red wine |
The word
wine comes from the
Old English win, which derives from the
Proto-Germanic *winam which was an early borrowing from the
Latin vinum, (which can mean either the "wine" or the "
vine"), from
Aeolic Greek Fοίνος, (
woinos) and from earlier languages such as
Hebrew יין (
yayin). [
1].
Wine residue has been identified by Patrick McGovern's team at the
University Museum, Pennsylvania, in ancient
pottery jars. Records include ceramic jars from the
Neolithic sites at Shulaveri,
Georgia (about 6000 BC) [
2], Hajji Firuz Tepe in the
Zagros Mountains of present-day
Iran (5400-5000 BC) and from Late Uruk (3500-3100 BC) occupation at the site of
Uruk, in
Mesopotamia [
3]. The identifications are based on the identification of
tartaric acid and tartrate salts using a form of
infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). These identifications are regarded with caution by some biochemists because of the risk of false positives, particularly where complex mixtures of organic materials, and degradation products, may be present. The identifications have not yet been replicated in other laboratories.
In his book
Ancient Wine: The Search for the Origins of Viniculture (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003), McGovern argues that the domestication of the Eurasian wine grape and winemaking could have originated on the territory of modern
Georgia and
Armenia and spread south from there. [
4]
|
In Iran (Persia), mei (the Persian wine) has been a central theme of their poetry for more than a thousand years, although alcohol is strictly forbidden in Islam. |
Little is actually known of the prehistory of wine. It is plausible that early foragers and farmers made
alcoholic beverages from wild fruits, including wild grapes (
Vitis silvestris). This would have become easier following the development of
pottery vessels in the later
Neolithic of the
Near East, about 9000 years ago. However, wild grapes are small and sour, and relatively rare at
archaeological sites. It is unlikely they could have been the basis of a wine industry.
Domesticated grapes were abundant in the Near East from the beginning of the Early
Bronze Age, starting in 3200 BC. There is also increasingly abundant evidence for wine making in
Sumeria and
Egypt in the third millennium BC. The ancient Chinese made wine from native wild "mountain grapes" like
Vitis thunbergii [
5] for a time, until they imported domesticated grape seeds from Central Asia in the
second century BC. Grapes were, of course, also an important food. There is scanty evidence for earlier domestication of grape, in the form of grape pips from
Chalcolithic Tell Shuna in
Jordan, but this evidence remains unpublished.
Exactly where wine was first made is still unclear. It could have been anywhere in the vast region, stretching from Spain to Central Asia, where wild grapes grow. However, the first large-scale production of wine must have been in the region where grapes were first domesticated,
Southern Caucasus and the Near East. Wild grapes grow in
Georgia, northern
Levant, coastal and southeastern
Turkey, northern
Iran or
Armenia. None of these areas can be definitively singled out yet, despite persistent suggestions that
Georgia is the birthplace of wine[
6].
Egypt
In
Ancient Egypt, wine played an important role in
ceremonial life. A thriving royal winemaking industry was established in the
Nile Delta following the introduction of grape cultivation from the Levant to Egypt c. 3000 BC. The industry was most likely the result of trade between Egypt and
Canaan during the Early
Bronze Age, commencing from at least the Third Dynasty (
2650 â€"
2575 BC), the beginning of the Old Kingdom period (
2650 â€"
2152 BC). Winemaking scenes on
tomb walls, and the offering lists that accompanied them, included wine that was definitely produced at the deltaic
vineyards. By the end of the Old Kingdom, five wines, all probably produced in the Delta, constitute a canonical set of provisions, or fixed "menu," for the afterlife. The advent of wine in
Europe was the work of the
Greeks who spread the art of grape-growing and winemaking in
Ancient Greek and
Roman times.
White Wine in Tutankhamun's Tomb
Wine in ancient
Egypt was predominantly red. A recent discovery, however, has revealed the first ever evidence of white wine in ancient
Egypt. Residue from five clay
amphorae from
Pharaoh Tutankhamun's tomb yielded traces of white wine. [
7]
Ancient Greece
Much modern wine culture derives from the practices of the ancient Greeks; while the exact arrival of wine in Greek territory is unknown, it was known to both the
Minoan and
Mycenaean cultures. [
8]
Dionysos was the Greek god of wine and revelry, and wine was frequently referred to in the works of
Homer and
Aesop.
Ancient Middle East
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire had an immense impact on the development of viticulture and enology. Wine was an integral part of the Roman diet and wine making became a precise business.
As the Roman Empire expanded, wine production in the provinces grew to the point the provinces were competing with Roman wines. Virtually all of the major wine producing regions of Western Europe today were established by the Romans.
Wine making technology improved considerably during the time of the Roman Empire. Many grape varieties and cultivation were known. Barrels were developed for storing and shipping wine. Bottles were used for the first time. And the early developments of an appellation system formed as certain regions gained reputations for fine wine.
Once the Roman Empire fell around 500 CE, Europe went into a period known as the Dark Ages. This was a period of invasions and social turmoil. The only stable social structure was the Catholic Church. Through the Church, the grape growing and wine making technology was preserved during this period.
Medieval Europe
In medieval Europe wine was consumed by the church and the noble and merchant classes, ale being the drink of the general populace. Wine was necessary for the celebration of the Catholic Mass, and so assuring a supply was crucial. The
Benedictine monks became one of the largest producers of wine in France and Germany, followed closely by the
Cistercians. Other orders, such as the Carthusians, the Templars, and the Carmelites, are also notable both historically and modernly as wine producers. The Benedictines held vineyards in Champagne, (Dom Perignon was a Benedictine monk), Burgundy, and Bordeaux in France and in the Rheingau and Franconia in Germany; indeed, they were the first to plant Riesling grapes in Germany. Though they did not originate viticulture in these areas, they made it into an industry, producing enough wine to ship it all over Europe for secular use.
A housewife of the merchant class or a servant in a noble household would have served wine at every meal, and had a selection of reds and whites alike. Home recipes for
meads from this period are still in existence, along with recipes for spicing and disguising off flavors in wines, including the simple act of adding a small amount of
honey to the wine. As wines were kept in barrels, they were not extensively aged, and therefore were drunk quite young. To offset the effects of heavy consumption of alcohol, wine was frequently watered down at a ratio of four or five parts water to one of wine.
Wine in the New World
Grapes and wheat were first brought to what is now
Latin America by the first Spanish
conquistadores to provide the necessities of the Catholic
Holy Eucharist.
Wine producing countries
Wine production by country 2003| Rank | Country
(with link to wine article) | Production
(tonnes) | | 1 | France | 4,735,260 |
| 2 | Spain | 4,623,750 |
| 3 | Italy | 4,408,611 |
| 4 | United States of America | 2,350,000 |
| 5 | Argentina | 1,322,500 |
| 6 | China | 1,200,000 |
| 7 | Australia | 1,019,400 |
| 8 | South Africa | 885,300 |
| 9 | Germany | 828,855 |
| 10 | Portugal | 709,300 |
|
Wine producing regions
Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between thirty and fifty degrees north or south of the
equator. The world's most southerly vineyards are in the
South Island of
New Zealand near the 45th parallel. However, the world's most northerly vineyard is Blaxsta Vingård [
9] in
Flen,
Sweden, just above the 59th parallel [
10]. As a rule, grapevines prefer a relatively long growing season of 100 days or more with warm daytime temperatures (not above 95°
F/35°
C) and cool nights (a difference of 40°F/23°C or more).
Wine exporting countries
The 14 largest export nations (2005 dates) â€"
France,
Italy,
Spain,
Australia,
Chile, the
United States of America,
Germany,
South Africa,
Portugal,
Romania,
Moldova,
Hungary,
Croatia and
Argentina.
California produces about 90% of the wine in the United States. In 2000,
Great Britain imported more wine from
Australia than from
France for the first time in history.
The leaders in export volume by market share in 2003 were:
*
France, 22%
*
Italy, 20%
*
Spain, 16%
*
Australia, 8%
*
Chile, 6%
*
United States, 5%
*
Portugal, 4%
*
Germany, 4%
 |
Wine grapes on the vine |
Wine is usually made from one or more
varieties of the
European species,
Vitis vinifera. When one of these varieties, such as
Pinot Noir,
Chardonnay, or
Merlot, for example, is used as the predominant grape (usually defined by law as a minimum of 75 or 85%) the result is a
varietal, as opposed to a blended wine. Blended wines are in no way inferior to varietal wines; indeed, some of the world's most valued and expensive wines from the
Bordeaux,
Rioja or
Tuscany regions, are a blend of several grape varieties of the same
vintage.
Wine can also be made from other species or from
hybrids, created by the genetic crossing of two species.
Vitis labrusca,
Vitis aestivalis,
Vitis muscadinia,
Vitis rupestris,
Vitis rotundifolia and
Vitis riparia are native
North American grapes, usually grown for eating in fruit form or made into grape juice, jam, or jelly, but sometimes made into wine, eg.
Concord wine (
Vitis labrusca species). Although generally prohibited by law in traditional wine regions, hybrids are planted in substantial numbers in cool-climate viticultural areas.
Hybrids are not to be confused with the practice of
grafting. Most of the world's vineyards are planted with European vinifera vines that have been grafted onto North American species rootstock. This is common practice because North American grape species are resistant to
phylloxera. Grafting is done in every wine-producing country of the World except for Chile and Argentina, which have yet to be exposed to the bug.
The variety of grape(s),
aspect (direction of slope), elevation, and
topography of the vineyard, type and chemistry of soil, the climate and seasonal conditions under which grapes are grown, the local
yeast cultures altogether form the concept of
"terroir." The range of possibilities lead to great variety among wine products, which is extended by the fermentation, finishing, and aging processes. Many small producers use growing and production methods that preserve or accentuate the aroma and taste influences of their unique terroir.
However, flavor differences are not desirable for producers of mass-market
table wine or other cheaper wines, where consistency is more important. These producers will try to minimize differences in sources of grapes and hide any hint of often-unremarkable
"terroirs", or of climatically under-performing harvest years, by:
* blending harvests of various years and vineyards;
* pasteurizing the grape juice in order to kill indigenous yeasts (to be replaced with "choice" cultivated yeasts); and
* using flavor additives.
List of italian and french wines (it)By vinification methods
|
Dark purple wine grapes on the vine |
Wines may be classified by vinification methods. These include classifications such as sparkling, still, fortified, rosé, and blush. The colour of wine is not determined by the juice of the grape, which is almost always clear, but rather by the presence or absence of the grape skin during fermentation. Grapes with colored juice, for example alicante bouchet, are known as
teinturiers. Red wine is made from red (or black) grapes, but its red colour is bestowed by a process called maceration, whereby the skin is left in contact with the juice during fermentation. White wine can be made from any colour of grape as the skin is separated from the juice during fermentation. A white wine made from a very dark grape may appear pink or '
blush'. A form of
Rosé is called
Blanc de Noir where the juice of red grapes are allowed contact with the skins for a very short time (usually only a couple of hours).
Sparkling wines, such as
champagne, are those with
carbon dioxide, either from fermentation or added later. They vary from just a slight bubbliness to the classic Champagne. To have this effect, the wine is fermented twice, once in an open container to allow the carbon dioxide to escape into the air, and a second time in a sealed container, where the gas is caught and remains in the wine. Sparkling wines that gain their carbonation from the traditional method of bottle fermentation are called
Méthode Traditionelle or 'Methode Champenoise'. Other international denominations of sparkling wine include Sekt or Schaumwein (Germany), Cava (Spain), Spumante or Prosecco (Italy). In most countries except the United States, champagne is legally defined as sparkling wine originating from a region in France.
Fortified wines are often sweeter, and generally more alcoholic wines that have had their fermentation process stopped by the addition of a spirit, such as brandy, or have had additional spirit added after fermentation.
Brandy is a
distilled wine.
Grappa is a dry colorless brandy, distilled from fermented grape
pomace, the pulpy residue of grapes, stems and seeds that were pressed for the winemaking process.
By taste
Wines may be also classified by their primary impression on the drinker's
palate. They are made up of chemical compounds which are similar to those in fruits, vegetables, and
spices. Different grape varieties are associated with the
aromas and tastes of different compounds. Wines may be described as 'dry' (meaning they are without obvious sugar), off-dry, fruity, or sweet, for example. The sugar content of grapes can be measured in
brix, at harvest, and this determines the combined level of alcohol and residual sugar (in the absence of chaptalisation). Sweetness is in actuality determined by the amount of residual sugar in the wine after fermentation, relative to the acidity present in the wine.
Dry wine, for example, has only a tiny amount of residual sugar. Specific flavors may also be sensed, at least by an experienced taster, due to the highly complex mix of organic molecules, such as
esters, that a fully vinted wine contains.
Some red grapes
*
Cabernet Franc:
tobacco, green bell pepper, raspberry, new-mown grass.
*
Cabernet Sauvignon: blackcurrants, chocolate, mint, tobacco.
*
Gamay: pomegranate, strawberry, red fruits.
*
Grenache: smoky, pepper, raspberry.
*
Malbec: violet, fruit
*
Merlot: black cherry, plums, pepper, coffee.
*
Mourvèdre: thyme, clove, cinnamon, black pepper, violet, blackberry.
*
Nebbiolo: leather, tar, stewed prunes, chocolate,
liquorice, roses.
*
Norton: red fruit,
elderberries.
*
Petite Sirah (Durif): earthy, black pepper, dark fruits.
*
Petit Verdot:
Banana (young), violets (later)
*
Pinot Noir: raspberry, cherry, violets, "farmyard" (with age),
truffles.
*
Pinotage: banana,
bramble fruits.
*
Sangiovese: herbs, black cherry, leathery, earthy.
*
Syrah (Shiraz): tobacco, black pepper, blackberry, smoke.
*
Tempranillo: vanilla, strawberry, tobacco.
*
Teroldego: spices, chocolate, red Fruits
*
Zinfandel: black cherry, pepper, mixed spices, mint.
Some white grapes
*
Albariño:
lemon, minerals.
*
Chardonnay: butter,
melon,
apple,
pineapple,
vanilla (if oaked, i.e. vinified in new
oak aging barrels)
*
Chenin Blanc: wet wood,
beeswax, honey, apple,
almond.
*
Gewürztraminer:
rose petals,
lychee, spice.
*
Grüner Veltliner:
green apple,
citrus.
*
Marsanne: almond,
honeysuckle,
marzipan.
*
Melon de Bourgogne:
lime,
salt,
green apple.
*
Muscat:
lilac,
honey,
grapes,
lime.
*
Palomino:
honeydew,
citrus,
raw nuts.
*
Pinot Gris:
white peach,
pear,
apricot.
*
Prosecco:
apple,
honey,
musk,
citrus.
*
Riesling:
citrus fruits, peach, honey.
*
Sauvignon Blanc:
gooseberry,
lime,
asparagus, cut grass, bell pepper.
*
Sémillon:
honey,
orange,
lime.
*
Ugni Blanc aka
Trebbiano:
lime,
herbs.
*
Verdicchio:
apple, minerals,
citrus.
*
Vermentino:
pear,
cream, green fruits.
*
Viognier:
peach,
pear,
nutmeg,
apricot.
Wines may be classified by the year in which the grapes are harvested, known as the "vintage". "Vintage wines" are made from grapes of a single year's harvest, and are accordingly dated. Some wines can improve in flavor as they age, and wine enthusiasts will occasionally save bottles of an especially good vintage wine for future consumption.
Most countries allow a vintage wine to include a portion of wine that is not from the labeled vintage. In Chile and South Africa, the requirement is 75 percent. In Australia, New Zealand, and the member states of the European Union the requirement is 85 percent. In the United States the requirement is 95 percent same-year content for vintage-dated wine. In theory, the 95 percent rule in the United States applies equally to foreign imports, but there are obvious challenges in enforcing the regulation.
For some types of wine, the best-quality grapes and the most care in wine-making are employed on vintage wines and they are therefore more expensive than non-vintage wines. Whilst vintage wines are generally made in a single batch so that each and every bottle will have a similar taste, climatic factors can have a dramatic impact on the character of a wine to the extent that different vintages from the same vineyard can vary dramatically in flavor and quality. Thus, vintage wines are produced to be individually characteristic of the vintage and to serve as the flagship wines of the producer. Non-vintage wines, however, are blended from a number of vintages for consistency, this allows wine makers to keep a reliable market image and also maintain sales even in bad vintage years.
Superior vintages, from reputable producers and regions, will often fetch much higher prices than their average vintages. Some vintage wines are only made in better-than-average years. Conversely, wines such as
White Zinfandel, which don't age well, are made to be drunk immediately and may not be labeled with a vintage year. There are exceptions though. French Champagne is often non-vintage, but still expensive. It can sometimes profit from aging 2-3 years and some Prestige Cuvées even much longer.
There is some disagreement and research [
11] about the significance of
vintage year to wine quality.
Some red wines
*
Amarone: Italy
*
Barbaresco: Italy
*
Barolo: Italy
*
Beaujolais: France
*
Blaufränkischer: Austria
*
Bobal: Spain
*
Bordeaux: France
*
Brancellao: Spain
*
Brunello di Montalcino: Italy
*
Burgundy: France
*
Cabernet Franc: France, USA (California, Virginia)
*
Cabernet Sauvignon: Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, Italy, Moldova, New Zealand, Romania, South Africa, Turkey, USA (California, Washington State), Venezuela
*
Cannonau: Italy
*
Carmenere: Chile
*
Cencibel: Spain
*
Chianti: Italy
*
Dimyat: Bulgaria
*
Fetească Neagră: Romania
*
Fetească Regală: Romania
*
Garnacha aka
Grenache aka
Cannonau: Australia, France, South America, Spain, USA (California)
*
Gumza: Bulgaria
*
Kagor: Moldova
*
Kalecik Karasi: Turkey
*
Malbec: Argentina, France
*
Mavrodafni: Greece
*
Mavrud: Bulgaria
*
Mazuela: Spain
*
Melnik: Bulgaria
*
Merlot: Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, Italy, Moldova, New Zealand, Romania, South Africa, Turkey, USA (California, Washington State), Venezuela
*
Mirodia Red: Moldova
*
Monastrell: Spain
*
Norton: USA (Eastern and Midwestern States)
*
Nosiola: Italy
*
Pamid: Bulgaria
*
Petite Sirah: Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, USA (California, Washington State)
*
Petite Syrah: France
*
Pinot Meunier: France, Germany
*
Pinot Noir: Argentina, Australia, France, Italy, Moldova, New Zealand, Romania, South Africa, USA (California, Oregon, Washington State)
*
Pinotage: New Zealand, South Africa, Zimbabwe
*
Rioja: Spain
*
Syrah/Shiraz: Australia, France (
Rhône), Italy, South Africa, Turkey, USA (California, Washington State), Venezuela
*
Tempranillo: Argentina, Spain, Venezuela
*
Trollinger: Germany
*
Valpolicella: Italy
*
Zinfandel: USA (California, Washington State)
*
Zweigelt: Austria
Sparkling red wines*
Brachetto: Italy
*
Cabernet Sauvignon: Australia
*
Lambrusco: Italy
*
Syrah/Shiraz: Australia
Soleras wines*
Marsala: Italy
*
Moscatel: Portugal
*
Palomino (grape used in Sherry): Spain
*
Pedro Ximénez: Spain
*
Porto: Portugal, South Africa ("port style", EU regulations forbid "port(o)" on labels)
Some white wines
*
Airén: Spain
*
Albillo: Spain
*
Aleasa Dulce: Moldova
*
Chablis: France
*
Chardonnay: Australia, France, Germany, Italy, Moldova, New Zealand, Romania, South Africa, Turkey, USA (California, Midwest States, Washington State)
*
Chenin Blanc: France, South Africa, Venezuela
*
Doña Blanca: Spain
*
Fetească Albă: Moldova, Romania
*
Frascati: Italy
*
Gavi: Italy
*
Gewürztraminer: Australia, France (Alsace), Germany, New Zealand, Romania, South Africa, USA (Washington State)
*
Goldmuskateller: Italy
*
Grasă de Cotnari: Romania
*
Grüner Veltliner: Austria
*
Kerner: Italy
*
Macabeo: Spain
*
MalvasÃa: Italy
*
Meursault: France
*
Mirodia White: Moldova
*
Misket: Bulgaria
*
Moscatel: Spain, Venezuela
*
Müller-Thurgau: Austria, England, Germany, Italy
*
Muscat: Australia, Moldova, Romania, South Africa, Turkey
*
Orvieto: Italy
*
Pedro Ximénez: Spain
*
Pinot Gris/Pinot Grigio/Grauburgunder: France, Germany, Italy, Romania, USA (Oregon)
*
Pouilly-Fuissé: France
*
Retsina: Greece
*
Riesling: Australia, Austria, France (Alsace), Chile, Germany, Idaho, New Zealand, Oregon, Romania, Italy
*
Sauvignon Blanc: Australia, Austria, France, Italy, Moldova, New Zealand, Romania, South Africa, Turkey, USA (California, Washington State), Venezuela
*
Semillon: Australia, France, South Africa, Turkey, USA (Washington State), Venezuela
*
Silvaner: Germany, Italy
*
Soave: Italy
*
Tǎmâioasǎ Româneascǎ: Romania
*
Tokaji: Hungary, Slovakia
*
Torrontés: Argentina, Spain
*
Traminer: Australia, Italy, Romania, Moldova
*
Verdelho: Australia, Portugal
*
Verdicchio dei castelli di Jesi: Italy
*
Vermentino: Italy
*
Vidal Blanc: USA (Virginia, New York)
*
Viognier: Australia, France (
Rhône), USA (California, Virginia)
Sparkling white wines*
Asti Spumante: Italy
*
Cava: Spain
*
Champagne: France
*
Franciacorta: Italy
*
Moscato d'Asti: Italy
*
Prosecco: Italy
*
Sekt: Austria, Germany
*
TxacolÃ: Spain
*
Vin Spumos (Zarea):Romania
Pink wines*
Busuioacă de Bohotin: Romania
*
Lagrein Rosato: Italy
*
Rosé: Australia, France, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, USA
By quality
Premium wines
At the highest end, rare, super-premium wines are amongst the most expensive of all foodstuffs, and outstanding vintages from the best vineyards may sell for thousands of dollars per bottle. Red wines, at least partly because of their ability to form more complex subtleties, are typically more expensive. Some of the most expensive come from Bordeaux and Burgundy. However, some white dessert wines like German trockenbeerenauslese or French Sauternes for example, cost hundreds of dollars for a half bottle. Such premium wines are often at their best years or even decades after bottling. On the other hand, they may
spoil after such long storage periods, unbeknownst to the drinker about to open the bottle. Part of the expense associated with high-end wine comes from the number of bottles which must be discarded in order to produce a drinkable wine. Restaurants will often charge between two and five times the price of what a
wine merchant may ask for an exceptional vintage. This is for a reason: diners will often return wines that have
spoiled and not bear the expense. For restaurateurs, serving old vintages is a risk that is compensated through elevated prices. Some high-end wines may be
Veblen goods.
Exclusive wines come from all the best
winemaking regions of the world. Secondary markets for these wines have consequently developed, as well as specialised facilities for post-purchase storage for people who either collect or "invest" in wine. The most common wines purchased for investment are
Bordeaux,
California cult wines and
Port. The importance of the secondary wine market has led the rise of so-called "supercritics", most notably
Robert M. Parker, Jr. The shift towards a perceived single-scale of wine analysis (the 100-point scale, or similar) has caused some traditionalists to claim that this process encourages a reduction in variety, as winemakers world-wide try to produce the allegedly single style of wine that will find favour with Mr. Parker and the many consumers who are influenced by his evaluations. The rise, in the late 90's, of wines produced by the
garagistes in Bordeaux, and the heavily tannic, highly fruit-driven wines of the New World, especially in California, Washington State, Australia and New Zealand, all selling for prices above that of the
First Growths appear to reflect the influence of Parker and changing wine tastes. (The
First Growths were classified by the French government in 1855 as the four best (i.e., most expensive) wines in Bordeaux. A
fifth was added in 1973 after decades of lobbying by its owner.)
Investment in fine wine has attracted a number of fraudsters who play on fine wine's exclusive image and their clients' ignorance of this sector of the wine market.
Wine fraud scams often work by charging excessively high prices for the wine, while representing that it is a sound investment unaffected by
economic cycles. Like any investment, proper research is essential before investing. False labeling is another dishonest practice commonly used.
Some wines, produced to mark significant events in a country or region, can also become collectible because of labelling design. An example is the
Mildara Rhine Riesling produced in
1973 to mark the opening of the
Sydney Opera House. Instead of labels, the bottles (red, as well as white) had printing in gold on them, as seen in the illustration.
Cheap wines
At the lower end of the quality spectrum,
bulk wine or
cooking wine is usually sold cheaply and in large quantities.
Cleanskin wine is a type of cheap wine, of ever-increasing popularity in
Australia, whose label does not feature the winery or the winemaker's name. Cleanskin wine is not necessarily of low quality, and over-produced premium wines are often sold as cleanskins (mainly on online auctions) rather than turned into vinegar.
Wines are usually named either by their grape variety or by their place of production. Generally speaking, Old World (European) wines are named for the place of production, with the grapes used often not appearing on the label. New World wines (those from everywhere except Europe) are generally named for the grape variety. More and more, however, market recognition of particular regions and wineries is leading to their increased prominence on New World wine labels. Examples of recognized locales include: Napa Valley,
Russian River Valley,
Willamette Valley, Sonoma,
Walla Walla, Central Coast, etc. Still, though, the grape variety is almost invariably present on the
label. This is not the case with most European wines because of tradition and legal restrictions. However, to consumers, the system can be confusing if not impenetrable. For example, 72% of French adults report that they have difficulty understanding wine labels. This is understandable; the many systems of geographic nomenclature with their precise meanings and implications are highly complex.[
12]
Within Europe, a major exception to the no-grape rule is with German wines, for which it is not uncommon to find this information on the front label. To accommodate market demands, an increasing number of French wine makers are labeling their bottles with the variety or varieties of grapes included, as permitted by law.
Regional wine names
The taste of a wine depends not only on the grape species and varietal blend, but also on the ground and climate (known as terroir) where it is cultivated. Historically, wines have been known by names reflecting their origin, and sometimes style: Bordeaux,
Rioja,
Mosel and
Chianti are all legally defined names, reflecting the traditional wines produced in the named region. These naming conventions or "
appellations" (as they are known in France) dictate not only where the grapes in a wine were grown, but also which grapes went into the wine and how they were vinified. The appellation system is strongest in the European Union, but a related system, the
American Viticultural Area, restricts the use of certain regional labels in America, such as Napa Valley,
Santa Barbara and Willamette Valley. The AVA designations do not restrict the type of grape used. New World wines are known primarily by their varietal content, and not by their region.
The inconsistent application of historical European designations offends many producers there. For example, in most of the world, wine labeled Champagne must be made from grapes grown in the Champagne region of France and fermented using a certain method, based on the international trademark agreements included in the
1919 Treaty of Versailles.
While most countries restrict the use of European place names, there exists a legal definition called
semi-generic in the United States that enables U.S. winemakers to use certain generic terms (Champagne, Hock, Sherry, etc.) if there appears next to the term the actual appellation of origin in order to prevent any possible confusion. Generally only the most inexpensive, mass-produced wines (or
vin ordinaire) make use of these place names as semi-generic wine names; most of those now use the more popular varietal labeling.
For example, makers of American sparkling wines now generally find it to be of no advantage in the marketplace to use the name "Champagne" because the quality of their products is widely recognized. Thus, the finest sparkling wines from California will be labeled "sparkling wine", while some less expensive sparkling wines from California as well as states such as Ohio and New York may bear such names as "Ohio Champagne" or "New York State Champagne."
Some European producers protest the practice for fear that it causes loss of sales, although it would appear that only the most unsophisticated consumer could ever be confused or misled by the practice.
Some blended wine names are marketing terms, and the use of these names is governed by
trademark or
copyright law, rather than a specific wine law or a patent on the actual varietal blend or process used to achieve it. For example,
Meritage is generally a Bordeaux-style blend of
Cabernet Sauvignon and
Merlot, and may also include
Cabernet Franc,
Petit Verdot, and
Malbec. Use of the term Meritage is protected by licensing agreements by The Meritage Association.
 |
A glass of white wine |
Wine is a popular and important
beverage that accompanies and enhances a wide range of
European and
Mediterranean-style
cuisines, from the simple and traditional to the most sophisticated and complex. Red, white and sparkling wines are the most popular, and are also known as light wines, because they only contain approximately 10-14%
alcohol. (Alcohol percentages are usually by volume.) The
apéritif and
dessert wines contain 14-20% alcohol, and are fortified to make them richer and sweeter than the light wines. Although there are many classes of dinner wines, they can be categorized under six specific classes as follows:
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Apéritif (or better known as "appetizer wines"): include dry
sherry,
Madeira,
Vermouth, and other flavored wines, made to be consumed before eating a meal.
*
Red wines are usually dry and go well with such main-course dishes as
red meats,
spaghetti, and highly-seasoned foods.
*
Rosé wines (also called "pink wines") can be served with almost any dish, but are considered best with
seafood,
salads,
cold cuts,
pork, and
curries.
*
White wines can be very dry to rather sweet, these wines should be served chilled, and go well with
white meats,
seafood, and
fowl.
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Sparkling wines can served at any meal with any course. These wines are frequently served at
banquets, formal dinners and weddings. Sparkling wines can be white, pink (rosé), or red. The best known sparkling wines come from the Champagne region in France. Sparkling wines from Spain are called Cava, and in Germany they are called Sekt. Although often served throughout a meal, sparkling wines do not generally pair well with main meals, and should be served as an apéritif or with certain entrées.
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Table wine is not bubbly, although some have a very slight carbonation, the amount of which is not enough to disqualify them as table wines. According to U.S. standards of identity, table wines may have an alcohol content that is no higher than 14%. In Europe, light wine must be within 8.5% and 14% alcohol by volume. As such, unless a wine has more than 14% alcohol, or it has bubbles, it is a table wine or a light wine. In reality, in those regions where grapes ripen fully, such as California's hot
Central Valley, a large portion of New World red wines have between 14 and 15.5% alcohol, yet are still certainly 'table wines' in the practical sense.
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Dessert wines range from medium-sweet to very sweet. These wines are classified under dessert wines only because they are sometimes served with desserts. Among these are
port wine,
sweet sherry,
Tokay,
Sauternes and
muscatel.
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Cooking wines typically contain a significant quantity of salt. It is a wine of such poor quality, that it is unpalatable by itself and intended for use only in cooking. (Note, however, that most cooking authorities advise against cooking with any wine one would find unacceptable to drink.)
The labels on certain bottles of wine suggest that they need to be set aside for an hour before drinking (i.e. to
breathe), while other wines are recommended to be drunk as soon as they are opened. "Breathing" means allowing a wine to aerate before drinking. Generally, younger wines benefit from some aeration, while older wines do not. The word, "younger", refers to the first one third of a wine's life, which varies from wine type to wine type and from wine to wine. For most red wines, "younger" means up to one to two years, while for white wines, it could mean as little as a few months. However, with every rule, there are exceptions: for a
Beaujolais Nouveau, younger is measured in months, if not weeks; for a hearty
Barossa Shiraz, it could be up to ten years. "Older", as you'd expect, refers to the last one third of a wine's life.
During aeration, the exposure of younger wines to air often "relaxes" the flavours and makes them taste smoother and better integrated in aroma, texture, and flavor. Wines that are older generally fade (lose their character and flavor intensity) with extended aeration. Breathing, however, does not benefit all wines, and should not therefore be taken to the extreme. In general, wine should be tasted as soon as it is opened to determine how long it may be aerated, if at all. It should then be tasted every 15 minutes until the wine is, according to individual preference, ready to drink. As a general rule, younger white wines normally require no more than 15-30 minutes of aeration while younger red wines should be no more than 30-60 minutes. If in doubt, it is better to err on the side of too little aeration than too much. Note that 'aerating' a wine involves more than removal of the cork. For aeration to provide any benefit whatsoever, the wine must be decanted.
Religious uses
Wine is also used in religious ceremonies in many cultures and the
wine trade is of historical importance for many regions.
Libations often included wine, and the
religious mysteries of
Dionysus are usually thought to have used wine as an
entheogen.
The New Testament states that Jesus' very first miracle was to turn water into wine (John 2:1-11), and the Old Testament states that the fermentation of grapes was known by
Noah after the great flood described in Genesis. (Gen. 9:20-21). However, it is also believed by some that the word "wine" is used interchangeably to describe both fermented (Proverbs 20:1, Proverbs 23:20, Proverbs 23:29-35) and unfermented grape juice (Isaiah 65:8, Hosea 4:11, Joel 1:5). This has led to some conflicts over the issue of the use of alcohol in the church. However, wine continues to remain an essential part of the
Eucharistic rites in the
Orthodox,
Catholic,
Lutheran and
Anglican denominations of
Christianity. Much of the New World wine industry was created by the Spanish conquistadores to provide sacramental wine, as the native grapes did not prove suitable to the purpose.
It was used in nearly all
Protestant groups until
Welch's created commercial
grape juice in 1869 by applying
pasteurization to grapes to stop the natural fermentation process. The influence of the
temperance movement and
Prohibition also convinced some of them to switch from wine to grape juice; there is an ongoing debate in many American Protestant denominations as to whether the Greek and Hebrew words for wine refer to alcoholic wine or grape juice, though outside such circles the terms are believed to refer to alcoholic wine and the debate is considered meaningless.
Wine is also a very integral part of Jewish laws and traditions. The Kiddush, a a blessing prior to eating on the Sabbath and other holidays, is required to be said over wine. On Pesach (
Passover) during the seder it is also required to drink four cups of wine.[
13] In American Jewish practice it is common to use a kosher wine made from
Concord grapes, though the wine produced is not popular outside Jewish liturgical circles; it has become increasingly common to use higher-quality kosher wines (often grown and made in Israel) at the Passover table.
Wine based drinks
Main article: List of cocktails with wine
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Brandy: A general term for distilled wine which has been aged for at least 2 years.
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Calimocho: A cheap alcoholic drink, comprising 50% red wine and 50% cola drink.
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Mulled wine (known in
Scandinavia as
Glögg and in Germany as Glühwein): A red wine, combined with spices, and usually served hot.
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Sangria: A wine punch, comprising red wine, chopped fruits, sugar, and a small amount of brandy or other spirits.
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Spritzer: A tall, chilled drink, usually made of white wine and soda water.
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Wine cooler: An alcoholic beverage made from wine and fruit juice, often in combination with a carbonated beverage and sugar.
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Zurracapote: A popular Spanish alcoholic drink comprised mainly of red wine, spirit, fruit juice, sugar and cinnamon.
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Rebujito: A mixture of manzanilla wine, mixed with a soft drink like
Sprite or
7 Up.
[[Image:Wine consumption world map.png|thumb|300px|Wine yearly consumption, per capita:
]]The
health effects of wine (and
alcohol in general) are the subject of considerable ongoing study. In the USA, a boom in red wine consumption was touched off in the
1990s by '
60 Minutes', and other news reports on the
French paradox.
It now seems clear that regular consumption of up to 1-2 drinks a day (1 standard drink is approximately equal to 5 oz, or 125 ml, of 13% wine) does reduce mortality, due to a 10%â€"40% lower risk of
coronary heart disease, especially for those over the age of 35 or so (see
Alcohol consumption and health). Originally, the effect was observed with red wine. Compounds, known as polyphenols, are found in larger amounts in red wine, and there is some evidence that these are especially beneficial. One particularly interesting
polyphenol antioxidant found in red wine is
resveratrol, to which numerous beneficial effects have been attributed. Red wine also contains a significant amount of
flavonoids and red
anthocyanin pigments that act as
antioxidants. With excessive consumption, however, any health benefits may be offset by the increased rate of various alcohol-related diseases, primarily cancers of mouth, upper respiratory tract, and ultimately,
cirrhosis of
liver, especially if consumption of red wine is immoderate.
Other studies have shown that similar beneficial effects on the heart can be obtained from drinking beer, and
distilled spirits. However, recent studies show that only red wine reduces the risk of contracting several types of cancer where beer and other alcoholic beverages show no change. Dr. Sinclair of
Harvard University and others claim that
resveratrol is the active molecule responsible for the significant difference in lowering cancer risks and that the required amounts are only found in red wine. Trace amounts of resveratrol exist in grapes, white and red wine and
peanuts.
Sulfites (or sulphites) are chemicals that occur naturally in grapes and also are added to wine as a
preservative. They can trigger a severe and life-threatening
allergic reaction in a small percentage of consumers, primarily
asthmatics. In the USA nearly all commercially produced wine, including that with no added sulfites, is required to state on the label "contains sulfites." In other countries they do not have to be declared on the label, leading to a common mistaken belief that only wine from the USA contains sulfites. Many consumers who have adverse reactions to wine, such as
headaches or
hangovers, blame added sulfites but are probably reacting instead to naturally-occurring biogenic amines such as
histamine. The quantity of sulfites in a glass of wine is the same as in a serving of dried
apricots.
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Cooper: Someone who makes wooden barrels, casks, and other similar wooden objects.
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Négociant: A wine merchant who assembles the produce of smaller growers and winemakers, and sells them under his own name.
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Vintner: A wine merchant or producer.
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Sommelier: A person in a restaurant who specializes in wine. They are usually in charge of assembling the wine list, staff education and making wine suggestions to customers.
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Winemaker: A person who makes wine.
*
Oenologist: A wine scientist. Often referred to as a winemaker.
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Viticulturist: A person who specializes in the science of the grapevines themselves. Can also be someone who manages a vineyard (decides how to prune, how much to irrigate, how to deal with pests, etc.)
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Mondovino, USA/France 2004: A documentary film directed by American film maker, Jonathan Nossiter, explaining the impact of
globalization on the various wine-producing regions.
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Sideways, 2004: A comedy/drama film, directed by Alexander Payne, with the tagline:
In search of wine. In search of women. In search of themselves., in which wine, particularly Pinot Noir, plays a central role.
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Falcon Crest, USA 1981-1990: A CBS primetime soap opera about the fictional Falcon Crest winery and the family who owned it, set in the fictional Tuscany Valley of California. The series was very popular and a wine named Falcon Crest even went on the market.
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Alcoholic beverage*
Glossary of wine terms*
List of wine-related articles*
List of wine personalities*
List of wine producing countries*
List of wine producing regions*
List of vineyards and wineries*
Wine competitions
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Wine tasting*
Wineography*
Historical information
*
A brief history in wine*
Chateau Hajji Firuz*
World's Earliest Wine*
Depiction of Wine in Persian Miniature*
Wine Museum - History of Wine*
End of the vineGeneral wine information
*
PressedforWine--Great wine information*
Wine Topix: wine information*
Lots of wine informationnds-nl:Wien
