Yuan Dynasty
The
Yuan Dynasty (;
pinyin: Yuáncháo;
Mongolian: Dai Ön Yeke Mongghul Ulus) lasting officially from
1271 to
1368, followed the
Song Dynasty and preceded the
Ming Dynasty in the
historiography of China. While it had nominal control over the entire
Mongol Empire (stretching from
Eastern Europe to the
Middle-east to
Russia),
China, the Mongol rulers in Asia were only interested in
China. Later successors did not even attempt to stake claim over the
Khakhan title and saw themselves as
Emperor of China.
Founding an Empire
Temüjin, later to be more prominently known as
Genghis Khan, was officially the first in the line of
Yuan Dynasty emperors. He was the son of
Yesügei, the tribal chief of the
Kiyad — a tribe in fragmented
Mongolia under nominal control of the
Jin Dynasty at the time. His father was killed in his early life by a rival tribe, leaving him the
heir. This led to bitterness on the part of
Senggum, Wang's former heir, who planned to assassinate Temüjin. Temüjin learned of Senggum's intentions however, and a large civil war broke out among the Mongols. Eventually Temüjin defeated Senggum and succeeded to the title of Wang Khan. Temüjin created a written code of laws for the Mongols called
Yassa, and he demanded it to be followed very strictly.
Temüjin followed with attacks on other neighboring tribes, which further increased his power. By combining diplomacy, organization, military ability, and brutality, Temüjin finally managed to unite the tribes into the single nation, a monumental feat for the Mongols, who had a long history of internecine dispute. In
1206 Temüjin successfully united the formerly fragmented tribes of what is now Mongolia. At a Khurultai (a council of Mongol chiefs), he was named the "
Genghis Khan", or the "Universal Ruler". The birth of Mongolia marked the start of what would become the largest continuous empire in history, ruling large parts of
Asia, the
Middle East and parts of
Europe, over the following two centuries. While his empire extended in all directions, Genghis Khan's main interest was always with the rest of China, specifically
Western Xia,
Jin Dynasty and southern
Song Dynasty.
Northern Conquest
At the time of the
Khuriltai, Genghis was involved in a dispute with Western
Xia â€" which eventually became the first of his wars of conquest. Despite problems in taking well defended Western Xia cities, he substantially reduced the Western Xia dominion by
1209, when peace with Western Xia was made. He was acknowledged by their
emperor as
overlord. This marks the first in a line of successes in defeating all the kingdoms and dynasties in China which wasn't complete until
Kublai Khan's rule. A major goal of Genghis was the conquest of the
Jin Dynasty, allowing the Mongols to avenge earlier defeats, gain the riches of northern China and mostly to establish the Mongols as a major power among the Chinese world order. He declared war in
1211, and at first the pattern of operations against the Jin Dynasty was the same as it had been against Western Xia. The Mongols were victorious in the field, but they were frustrated in their efforts to take major cities. In his typically logical and determined fashion, Genghis and his highly developed staff studied the problems of the
assault of
fortifications. With the help of Chinese engineers, they gradually developed the techniques to take down fortifications. Islamic engineers joined later and especially contributed counterweight
trebuchets, "Muslim phao", which had a maximum range of 300 metres compared to 150 metres of the ancient Chinese predecessor. It played a significant role in taking the Chinese strongholds and was as well used against infantry units on battlefield. This eventually would make troops under the Mongols some of the most accomplished and most successful
besiegers in the history of
warfare.
As a result of a number of overwhelming victories in the field and a few successes in the capture of fortifications deep within China, Genghis had
conquered and had consolidated Jin territory as far south as the
Great Wall by
1213. He then advanced with three armies into the heart of Jin territory, between the Great Wall and the Huang He. He defeated the Jin forces, devastated northern China, captured numerous cities, and in
1215 besieged, captured, and
sacked the Jin capital of Yanjing (later known as
Beijing). The Jin emperor,
Xuan Zong, however, did not surrender, but removed his capital to
Kaifeng. There his successors finally were defeated, but not until
1234.
The
vassal emperor of Western Xia had refused to take part in the war against the peoples of the
Khwarizm, and Genghis had vowed punishment. While he was in
Central Asia, Western Xia and Jin had formed an alliance against the Mongols. After rest and a reorganization of his armies, Genghis prepared for war against his biggest foes. By this time, advancing years had led Genghis to prepare for the future and to assure an orderly succession among his descendants. He selected his third son
Ogedei as his successor and established the method of selection of subsequent
khans, specifying that they should come from his direct
descendants. Meanwhile, he studied
intelligence reports from Western Xia and Jin and readied a force of 180,000 troops for a new campaign.
Aspirations to the Mandate of Heaven
In
1226, Genghis Khan attacked the
Tanguts (Western Xia) on the pretext that the Tanguts received the Mongols' enemies. Over the next year he took the cities
Heisui,
Ganzhou,
Suzhou, and
Xiliang-fu — the Western Xia were finally defeated near
Helanshan Mountain. He soon after took
Tangut city of
Ling-zhou and the
Yellow River — defeating the Tangut relief army. In
1227, Genghis Khan attacked the Tanguts' capital, and in February, he took
Lintiao-fu. In March, he took
Xining prefecture and
Xindu-fu. In April, he took
Deshun prefecture. At Deshun, the Western Xia General Ma Jianlong resisted the Mongols for days and personally led charges against them outside of the city gate. Ma Jianlong later died of arrow shots. On his deathbed in 1227, Genghis Khan outlined to his youngest son,
Tolui, the plans that later would be used by his successors to complete the destruction of the Western Xia, Jin Dynasty and Southern Song Dynasty. The new Western Xia emperor, during Mongol attack, surrendered. The Tanguts officially surrendered in 1227, after being in existence for 190 years, from
1038 to 1227. The Mongols killed the Tangut emperor and his royal family members.
During the reign of
Ögedei Khan, the Mongols completed the destruction of the
Jin (in
1234), coming into contact and conflict, during this time, with the
Southern Song. In
1235, under the khan's direct generalship, the Mongols began a war of conquest that would not end for forty-five years.
After a
series of campaigns from 1231 to 1259, Mongol armies vassalized
Korea. The Mongols established permanent control of
Persia proper (commanded by
Chormagan) and, most notably, expanded westwards under the command of
Batu Khan to subdue the Russian steppe. Their western conquests included almost all of
Russia (save
Novgorod, which became a vassal),
Hungary, and
Poland. Ögedei's death in
1241, caused by alcohol, brought the western campaign to a premature end. The commanders heard the news as they were advancing on
Vienna, and withdrew for the kuriltai in
Mongolia, never returning so far west again.
Not until
Möngke Khan were the Mongols ready to directly take on the Southern Song Dynasty. This empire possessed the world's greatest steel production and one of the strongest economies at the time. Concerned himself more with the war in China, he outflanked the
Song Dynasty through the conquest of
Yunnan in
1253 and an invasion of
Indochina, which allowed the Mongols to invade from north, west, and south. Taking command personally late in the decade, he captured many of the fortified cities along the northern front. These actions ultimately rendered the conquest a matter of time. He dispatched his brother Hülegü to the southwest, an act which was to expand the Mongol Empire to the gates of Egypt. European conquest was neglected due to the primacy of the other two theaters, but Möngke's friendliness with
Batu Khan (with whom
Güyük Khan had almost come to open warfare — only prevented from doing so by death) ensured the unity of empire. While conducting the war in China, Möngke fell ill of
dysentery and died (in
1259), which aborted Hülegü's campaign, staved off defeat for the Song, and caused a civil war that destroyed the unity, and invincibility, of the Mongol Empire. His death gave rise to
Kublai Khan, the first Yuan Emperor of China.
Establishment of the Yuán
Kublai Khan, a grandson of
Genghis Khan, ascended to the Great Khanate, becoming the supreme leader of all Mongol tribes in
1260. He began his reign with great aspirations and self-confidence — in
1264 he decided to completely rebuild the city of
Khanbaliq (Dà dū 大都, present-day
Beijing) as his new capital. He began his drive against the
Southern Song, establishing, in
1271 — eight years prior to Southern conquest — the first non-Han dynasty to rule all of the Middle Kingdom: the Yuan Dynasty. In
1272, Khanbaliq officially became the captial of the Yuan Dynasty. In
1279,
Guangzhou was conquered by the Yuan army, which marks the end of the Southern Song and the onset of China under the Yuan. During Kublai Khan's reign he was put under pressure by many of his advisers to further expand the territory of the Yuan through the traditional Sino-centric tributary system. However, they were rebuffed and expeditions to
Japan,
Myanmar,
Vietnam, and
Java, all would later fail.
Due to the fact that Mongols have gathered a general negative attitude in China, Kublai's early rule may be noted for its bandit-like nature. As if expecting to lose the country, the Mongols attempted to remove as much money and resources as was possible. The Mongol conquest never affected China's trade with other countries. In fact the Yuan Dynasty strongly supported the Silk Road trade network, allowing the transfer of Chinese technologies to the west. Though many reforms were made during Kublai's life, and despite his notable warming to the populace, the Yuán was a relatively short lived dynasty.
Kublai Khan began to serve as a true Emperor, reforming much of China and its institutions, a process which would take decades to complete. He, for example, insulated Mongol rule by centralizing the government of China — making himself (unlike his predecessors) an
absolutist monarch. He reformed many other governmental and economic institutions, especially concerning taxation. Although the Mongols sought to govern China through traditional institutions, using
Han Chinese bureaucrats, they were not up to the task initially. The Hans were discriminated against politically. Almost all important central posts were monopolized by Mongols, who also preferred employing non-Hans from other parts of the Mongol domain in those positions for which no Mongol could be found. Hans were more often employed in non-Chinese regions of the empire. In essence, the society was divided into four classes in order of privilege: Mongols, "Color-eyed" (Central Asians mostly Uyghurs and Tibetans), Han (Han Chinese in northern China, Manchus and Jurchens), and Southerners (Han Chinese within Southern Song and other ethnic groups). During his lifetime, Kublai developed the new capital of the Yuan,
Khanbaliq, building the elaborate Forbidden City. He also improved the agriculture of China, extending the Grand Canal, highways and public granaries.
Marco Polo described his rule as benevolent: relieving the populace of taxes in times of hardship; building hospitals and orphanages; distributing food among the abjectly poor. He also promoted science and religion.
Like other emperors of non-Han dynasties, Kublai considered himself a legitimate Chinese emperor. While he had nominal rule over the rest of the Mongol Empire, his interest was clearly in the Middle Kingdom. After Kublai's death in 1294 A.D., the Mongol Empire practically broke up into a number of independent Khanates.
Early Rule
Succession was a problem which marked the Yuán Dynasty, later causing much strife and internal struggle. This may be observed as early as the end of Kublai's reign. His original choice was his son,
Zhenjin — but he died prior to Kublai in
1285. Thus, Zhenjin's son ruled as
Emperor Chengzong of Yuan China for approximately 10 years following Kublai's death (between
1294 and
1307). Chengzong decided to maintain and continue many of the projects and much of the work begun by his grandfather. However, the corruption in the Yuan Dynasty began during the reign of
Chengzong.
Emperor Wuzong of Yuan China ascended to the
Emperorship of China following the death of Chengzong. Unlike his predecessor, he did not continue Kublai's work, but largely rejected it. During his short reign (
1307 to
1311), China fell into financial difficulties, partly by bad decisions made by Wuzong. By the time he died, China was in severe debt and the populace were discontent with the Yuán Dynasty.
The fourth Yuán emperor,
Emperor Renzong of Yuan China was seen as the last competent emperor. He stood out among the Mongol rulers of China as an adopter of mainstream
culture of China, to the discontent of some Mongol elite. He had been mentored by
Li Meng, a
Confucian academic. He made many reforms, including the liquidation of the Department of State Affairs (resulting in the execution of 5 of the highest ranking officials). Starting in
1313 examinations were introduced for prospective officials, testing their knowledge on significant historical works. Also he codified much of the law.
Impact
A rich cultural diversity developed during the Yuán dynasty. The major cultural achievements were the development of drama and the novel and the increased use of the
written vernacular. Given the unified rule of central Asia, trades between East and West flourished. The Mongols' extensive West Asian and European contacts produced a fair amount of cultural exchange. Western musical instruments were introduced to enrich the
Chinese performing arts. From this period dates the conversion to
Islam, by Muslims of Central Asia, of growing numbers of Chinese in the northwest and southwest.
Nestorianism and Roman
Catholicism also enjoyed a period of toleration.
Tibetan Buddhism flourished, although native
Taoism endured Mongol persecutions.
Confucian governmental practices and examinations based on the
Classics, which had fallen into disuse in north China during the period of disunity, were reinstated by the Mongols in the hope of maintaining order over Han society. Advances were realized in the fields of travel literature,
cartography, and
geography, and scientific education. Certain Chinese innovations and products, such as purified
saltpetre, printing techniques,
porcelain, playing cards and medical literature, were exported to Europe and Western Asia, while the production of thin glass and
cloisonne became popular in China. The first records of travels by Europeans to China and back date from this time. The most famous traveler of the period was the Venetian
Marco Polo, whose account of his trip to "
Cambaluc," the Great Khan's capital (now
Beijing), and of life there astounded the people of Europe. The account of his travels,
Il milione (or, The Million, known in English as the Travels of Marco Polo), appeared about the year 1299. The works of
John of Plano Carpini and
William of Rubruck also provided early descriptions of the Mongol people to the West.
The Mongols undertook extensive public works. Road and water communications were reorganized and improved. To provide against possible famines, granaries were ordered built throughout the empire. The city of Beijing was rebuilt with new palace grounds that included artificial lakes, hills and mountains, and parks. During the Yuán period, Beijing became the terminus of the Grand Canal, which was completely renovated. These commercially oriented improvements encouraged the overland as well as the maritime commerce throughout
Asia and facilitated direct Chinese contacts with Europe. Chinese travelers to the West were able to provide assistance in such areas as hydraulic engineering. Contacts with the West also brought the introduction to China of a major food crop,
sorghum, along with other foreign food products and methods of preparation.
Civil Unrest
The last of the Yuan Dynasty were marked by successions of struggle, famine, and bitterness on behalf of the populae. The dynasty was, significantly, one of the shortest lived dynasties in the
History of China, covering the period of just a century
1271 to
1368. In time, Khubilai's successors became
sinicized, and they then lost all influence on other Mongol lands across Asia, were the Mongols beyond the Middle Kingdom saw them as too Chinese. Gradually, they lost influence in China as well. The reigns of the later Yuán emperors were short and were marked by intrigues and rivalries. Uninterested in administration, they were separated from both the army and the populace. China was torn by dissension and unrest; bandits ranged the country without interference from the weakening Yuán armies.
Emperor Yingzong ruled for just two years (
1321 to
1323); his rule ended in a
coup at the hands of five princes. They placed
Taidingdi on the throne, and after an unsuccessful attempt to calm the princes he also succumbed to
regicide. The last of the nine successors of Khubilai was expelled from Dadu in 1368 by
Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the
MÃng Dynasty (1368-1644).
Northern Yuán
The Mongols retreated to Mongolia, where the Yuan Dynasty remained. It is now called the
Northern Yuán by modern historians. According to Chinese political orthodoxy, there could be only one legitimate empire, and so the Ming and the Yuan each denied the legitimacy of the other. However, historians tend to regard the
MÃng dynasty as the legitimate dynasty.
A Chinese army invaded Mongolia in 1380, and in 1388 a decisive victory was won. About 70,000 Mongols were taken prisoners, and
Karakorum (the Mongol capital) was annihilated. Eight years after the invasion, the Mongol throne was taken over by
Yesüder, a descendant of
Arigh Bugha. After getting the Mongols through the turbulent period, he restored the throne to descendants of
Kublai Khan. While conflicts existed with China, the Mongols basically fell under the tributary system of the
Ming Dynasty.
The Mongols were greatly attacked by the
Manchu in the 17th century. In 1634,
Ligdan Khan, the last Great Khan of the Mongols, died on his way to
Tibet. His son,
Ejei Khan, surrendered to the Manchu and gave the great seal of the Yuán Emperor to its ruler,
Hong Taiji. As a result, Hong Taiji established the
Qing Dynasty as the successor of the Yuán Dynasty in 1636. (However, some sources such as
Encyclopaedia Britannica give the year as 1637.)
* J. J. Saunders, The History of the Mongol Conquests (1971)
* M. Rossabi, Khubilai Khan (1988)
* Ahmad Y. al-Hassan and Donald R. Hill, Islamic Technology (1988)
See also
*
List of Mongol Khans*
Chinese sovereign*
Jin dynasty*
Western Xia*
Timur*
List of Emperors of the Yuan Dynasty*
Yuan dynasty family tree*
Yuan Dynasty Earthen City Wall Park, Beijing
