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Expert: Leo Lingham Date: 5/26/2008 Subject: ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Question hi leo please highlight on following concepts
ergonomics,matrix organisation,difeerence between mechanistic & organic organisation,force field analysis,Workshop methedology, & (Macdonaldisation & commodification as emerging trands in work organisation)
Answer MANASI,
HERE IS SOME USEFUL MATERIAL.
REGARDS
LEO LINGHAM
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ERGONOMICS
Ergonomics is a discipline that involves arranging the environment to fit the person in it. When ergonomics is applied correctly in the work environment, visual and musculoskeletal discomfort and fatigue are reduced significantly.
In recent years, Office of Health and Safety [OHS] has identified repetitive motion injuries as a factor in employee injuries. These injuries are caused by excessive and repeated physical stress on the musculoskeletal system - the hands, wrists, elbow, shoulders, neck, and back.
Following ergonomic principles helps reduce stress and eliminate many potential injuries and disorders associated with the overuse of muscles, bad posture, and repeated tasks. This is accomplished by designing tasks, work spaces, controls, displays, tools, lighting, and equipment to fit the employee’s physical capabilities and limitations.
the word is used to describe the science of "designing the job to fit the worker, not forcing the worker to fit the job." Ergonomics covers all aspects of a job, from the physical stresses it places on joints, muscles, nerves, tendons, bones and the like, to environmental factors which can effect hearing, vision, and general comfort and health.
Physical stressors include repetitive motions such as those caused by typing or continual use of a manual screwdriver. Other physical stressors could be tasks involving vibration such as using a jackhammer, or tasks which involve using excessive force, such as lifting a heavy box of books. Working in an awkward position, such as holding a telephone to your ear with your shoulder, can also cause problems. Repetitive motions, vibration, excessive force, and awkward postitions are frequently linked to ergonomic disorders; however, the majority of "Cumulative Trauma Disorders" (CTDs) or "Repetitive Strain Injuries" (RSIs), are caused by repetitive motions that would not result in undue stress or harm if only performed once. Carpal tunnel syndrome, Tendonitis, Tenosynovitis, DeQuarvain's Syndrome, Thoracic Outlet Syndrome, many back injuries, and several other conditions may result from repetitive motions.
Environmental factors could include such things as indoor air quality or excessive noise. "Sick building syndrome," with its accompanying headaches, congestion, fatigue and even rashes, can result from poor air quality in a building or office. Excessive noise around heavy machinery or equipment can cause permanent hearing loss. Improper lighting can cause eyestrain and headaches, especially in conjunction with a computer monitor.
It is important to listen to the signals your body gives you. If you suffer pain in the wrists or hands after a long day of typing, examine your work area and work practices to see if they may be causing the problems. Learn to make adjustments. Raise or lower chairs to avoid typing with your wrists at an odd angle. Adjust computer monitors to avoid glare. Take frequent breaks from repetitive tasks to give your body a rest. Always use proper lifting techniques. Sometimes small modifications to work procedures, posture, habits, and/or work station design can make a big difference in the way you feel at the end of a day.
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Matrix structure
Different structures can be combined together. When one has two parallel
organizational structures this is called a matrix structure. The idea is to combine the
advantages of two structures, but this has the obvious disadvantage of being harder to
coordinate and introducing more potential conflict.
In the past most large companies were centralized – that is, involved structures in
which decisions were taken at the centre or upper levels of organization. Just as there
has been a move to flatter organizations, so there has been a move to decentralized
ones.
**MATRIX STRUCTURE
Reinforces & broadens technical excellence
Facilitates efficient use of resources
Balances conflicting objectives of the organization
Increases power conflicts
Increases confusion & stress for 2-boss employees
Impedes decision making
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MECHANISTIC ORGANIZATION
mechanistic organizations are often appropriate in stable environments and for routine tasks and technologies. In some ways similar to bureaucratic structures, mechanistic organizations have clear, well-defined, centralized, vertical hierarchies of command, authority, and control. Efficiency and predictability are emphasized through specialization, standardization, and formalization. This results in rigidly defined jobs, technologies, and processes. The term mechanistic suggests that organizational structures, processes, and roles are like a machine in which each part of the organization does what it is designed to do, but little else.
The term "organic" suggests that, like living things, organizations change their structures, roles, and processes to respond and adapt to their environments. Organic structures are appropriate in unstable, turbulent, unpredictable environments and for non-routine tasks and technologies. For organizations coping with such uncertainty, finding appropriate, effective, and timely responses to environmental challenges is of critical importance. Organic organizations are characterized by:
decentralization
flexible, broadly defined jobs
interdependence among employees and units
multi-directional communication
employee initiative
relatively few and broadly defined rules, regulations, procedures, and processes
employee participation in problem solving and decision making, often interactively and in groups
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Force Field Analysis
Force Field Analysis is a method for listing, discussing, and evaluating the various forces for and against a proposed change. When a change is planned, Force Field Analysis helps you look at the big picture by analyzing all of the forces impacting the change and weighing the pros and cons. By knowing the pros and cons, you can develop strategies to reduce the impact of the opposing forces and strengthen the supporting forces.
Forces that help you achieve the change are called "driving forces." Forces that work against the change are called "restraining forces."
Force Field Analysis can be used to develop an action plan to implement a change. Specifically it can . . .
Determine if a proposed change can get needed support
Identify obstacles to successful solutions
Suggest actions to reduce the strength of the obstacles
Types of forces to consider
Available Resources
Traditions
Vested interests
Organizational structures
Relationships
Social or organizational trends
Attitudes of people
Regulations
Personal or group needs
Present or past practices
Institutional policies or norms
Agencies
Values
Desires
Costs
People
Events
The Process
Start with a well-defined goal or change to be implemented.
Draw a force field diagram.
At the top of a large sheet of paper write the goal or change to be implemented.
Divide the paper into two columns by drawing a line down the middle. At the top of the left column, write "Driving Forces." Label the right column "Restraining Forces."
Brainstorm a list of driving and restraining forces and record them on the chart in the appropriate column.
Once the driving and restraining forces have been identified, ask the following questions:
Are they valid?
How do we know?
How significant are each of them?
What is their strength?
Which ones can be altered?
Which cannot?
Which forces can be altered quickly?
Which ones only slowly?
Which forces, if altered, would produce rapid change?
Which only slow change in the situation?
What skills and/or information is needed and available to alter the forces?
Can we get them?
Assign a score to each force, from 1 (weak) to 5 (strong).
The score is based on (a) the strength of the force and (b) the degree to which it is possible to influence this force.
Calculate a total score for each of the two columns.
Decide if the goal or change is feasible. If so, devise a manageable course of action which:
Strengthens positive forces
Weakens negative forces
Creates new positive forces
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There are significant differences in the teaching methodologies employed by educators in various disciplines. This article provides insight into one methodology known as a workshop method of teaching in mathematics education. The method relies heavily on the involvement of the learner in formulating or constructing knowledge through hands-on, small-group and individual explorations, using concrete objects (manipulatives) or technology. While this methodology is ideally suited to the teaching of mathematics topics and mathematics education courses, it is also readily adaptable in the teaching of other disciplinary topics and courses too.
Some advantages of this methodology include:
1. The workshop method enables the learner to explore or master relatively abstract ideas by first encountering them in concrete, physical embodiments, then as pictorial representations, and finally in symbolic (letter, number, sentence) form. The workshop instructor carefully designs the workshop to present the ideas studied in these embodiments, and generally in the sequence noted -- concrete, pictorial and symbolic.
2. The workshop method helps the instructor create an environment in which the learner is more likely to be involved and motivated. The workshop method focuses on participatory, hands-on learning; small-group activity and problem solving; pair and small-group discussions; etc. As a result, because of the "active" rather than "passive" nature of the experience, larger numbers of learners are motivated to participate and learn.
3. The workshop method enables instructors to function as the "guide on the side," rather than as a "sage on the stage." Those using the workshop method do not focus on telling students information. Instead, they essentially create learning experiences that guide, direct, and facilitate the acquisition of new knowledge by the learner.
This latter advantage, in particular, is quite powerful.
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McDONALDIZATION
McDonaldization is the process of rationalization, albiet taken to extreme levels. Rationalization is a sociological term that simply means the substitution of logically consistent rules for traditional (or illogical) rules. One of the fundamental aspects of McDonaldization is that almost any task can (and should) be rationalized.
The process of McDonaldization takes a task and breaks it down into smaller tasks. This is repeated until all tasks have been broken down to the smallest possible level. The resulting tasks are then rationalized to find the single most efficient method for completing each task. All other methods are then deemed inefficient and discarded.
The result is an efficient, logical sequence of methods that can be completed the same way every time to produce the desired outcome. The outcome is predictable. All aspects of the process are easily controlled. Additionally, quantity (or calculability) becomes the measurement of good performance.
By now, you might be thinking that this all sounds pretty good. After all, being more efficient is a good thing. Controlled, consistent and measurable outcomes also sound good. So, what's the problem?
It turns out that over-rationalizing a process in this manner has an unexpected side effect. It's called irrationality. In a sociological context that simply means that a rationalized system may result in events or outcomes that were neither anticipated or desired, and in fact, may not be so good.
The four main dimensions of McDonaldization are:
Efficiency - The optimum method of completing a task. The rational determination of the best mode of production. Individuality is not allowed.
Calculability - Assessment of outcomes based on quantifiable rather than subjective criteria. In other words, quantity over quality. They sell the Big Mac, not the Good Mac.
Predictability - The production process is organized to guarantee uniformity of product and standardized outcomes. All shopping malls begin to look the same and all highway exits have the same assortment of businesses.
Control - The substitution of more predictable non-human labor for human labor, either through automation or the deskilling of the work force.
There are other dimensions of McDonaldization that are worthy enough for prime attention. They are:
Irrationality - A side effect of over-rationalized systems. Ritzer himself hints that this is the fifth dimension of McDonaldization. An example of this could be workers on an assembly line that are hired and trained to perform a single highly rationalized task. Although this may be a very efficient method of operating a business, an irrationality that is spawned can be worker burnout.
Deskilling - A work force with the minimum abilities possible to complete simple focused tasks. This means that they can be quickly and cheaply trained and are easily replaceable.
Consumer Workers - One of the sneakiest things about McDonaldization is how consumers get tricked into becoming unpaid employees. They do the work that was traditionally performed by the company. The prime example of this is diners who bus their own tables at the fast food restaurant. They dutifully carry their trash to friendly receptacles marked "thank you." (The extreme rationalization of this is the drive-thru; consumers take their trash with them!) Other examples are many and include: ATM's, salad bars, automated telephone menus, and pumping gas.
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Commodification
Commodification means the transformation of relationships, formerly untainted by commerce, into commercial relationships, relationships of exchange, of buying and selling.
“Commodification” is a term that only come into currency in 1977, but expresses a concept fundamental to Marx’s understanding of the way capitalism develops.
“The bourgeoisie, wherever it has got the upper hand, has put an end to all feudal, patriarchal, idyllic relations. It has pitilessly torn asunder the motley feudal ties that bound man to his “natural superiors”, and has left no other nexus between man and man than naked self-interest, than callous “cash payment”. It has drowned out the most heavenly ecstasies of religious fervour, of chivalrous enthusiasm, of philistine sentimentalism, in the icy water of egotistical calculation. It has resolved personal worth into exchange value, and in place of the numberless indefeasible chartered freedoms, has set up that single, unconscionable freedom - Free Trade. In one word, for exploitation, veiled by religious and political illusions, it has substituted naked, shameless, direct, brutal exploitation.
“The bourgeoisie has stripped of its halo every occupation hitherto honoured and looked up to with reverent awe. It has converted the physician, the lawyer, the priest, the poet, the man of science, into its paid wage labourers.
“The bourgeoisie has torn away from the family its sentimental veil, and has reduced the family relation into a mere money relation.”
Examples of commodification include:
the socialisation of women’s labour, with work such as preparing meals, caring for children, repairing and cleaning clothes and so on, now being purchased on the market, very often from women who are selling their labour power for a wage rather than offering the same service within a relationship of domestic servitude called marriage;
the privatisation of government services, with work such as education, public transport and health care, water supply, road works being provided on a “user-pays” system, instead of as public services, which in many cases were provided out of tax revenue and delivered to the public free of charge;
the commercialisation of scientific and cultural activities through the increasing pressure conveyed through “funding mechanisms” to orient activity towards serving commercial rather than human interests;
the professionalisation of amateur sports and services, to a point when playing a “game” involves working out at 5 a.m., and your teenage neighbour needs a degree in early childhood development and a salary before she will be allowed to baby-sit;
the corporatisation of organisations, with internal relations of accountability and command being replaced by one-line budgetary mechanisms of planning and control;
fee-paying services supplanting voluntary collaboration and association, as when the volunteer fire brigades and school tuck shop people gradually fade away, to be replaced by wage-labour;
the feeding of coins into slot-machines, the purchase of packaged games, images, magazines and so on, replacing participation in games, sing-alongs, conversation and altogether normal human interaction, etc.;
intellectual property, copyright, patent and price tags being placed on information and knowledge in all branches science, industry and art.
The question as to why commodification is taking place, and has been continuously gnawing away at all pre-bourgeois and bureaucratic relations for several centuries, with a little ebb and flow , but with unstoppable force and relentless persistence, is surely the most profound question facing humanity, and goes to the very essence of the human condition.
The extension of commodification is a contradictory process: demeaning and dehumanising, but at the same time liberating and progressive.
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