AboutLeo Lingham Expertise In Managing a business, I can cover all aspects of running
a business--business planning, business development, business auditing, business communication, operation management, human
resources management , training, etc.
Experience 18 years of working management experience covering such areas
as business planning, business development, strategic planning,
marketing, management services, personnel administration.
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24 years of management consulting which includes business planning, strategic planning, marketing, product management, training, business coaching etc.
Question 1.Discuss the nature and significance of understanding individual behavior?
2. Explain the various approaches of organizational effectiveness?
Answer SUCHARITHA,
HERE IS SOME USEFUL MATERIAL.
REGARDS
LEO LINGHAM
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1.Discuss the nature and significance of understanding individual behavior?
HUMAN BEHAVIOR
Each of us has needs, and we direct our energies to meet these needs as we see fit. Helping your people resolve their problems will result in a unit that will operate smoothly and be highly productive. Human behavior is the result of attempts to satisfy certain needs. These needs may be simple to understand and easy to identify, such as the need for food and water. They also may be complex, such as the need for respect and acceptance. Why do people act the way they do? Why do some people have an easy time, while others have a hard time adjusting to shipboard life? Why, with an upcoming extended deployment, do some crew members look forward to visiting foreign ports, while others prefer to stay with the familiar homeport?
Finding the answers to these questions is not easy. In fact, a whole branch of science and psychology has tried to answer such questions but has found no hard-and-fast answers. In general, you could say people behave the way they do for a reason. However, the reason may not be clear; in fact, it may not be logical or rational either to you or to the person in question. By observing human behavior, you can gain the knowledge you need to better understand yourself and other people. You can learn why people act and react in certain ways. You can learn how to identify the various types of behavior and needs of people. You also can learn how to influence the behavior of people so that they can see how meeting the needs of the command will satisfy their own needs. Don’t take lightly human behavior and its application to the areas of leadership and supervision. How well you understand and apply the basic concepts could determine, to a great extent, your success . All successful leaders must have an understanding of people’s behavior. If you understand the needs of your people and help them to satisfy those needs, you will succeed as a leader. We can reasonably determine an individual’s needs by understanding basic human needs. We all have five basic levels of need. Our needs are in order of importance, such as our need to relieve pain (survival) is more important than a need to be liked by coworkers [social belonging).
If we satisfy one level, then we work to satisfy the next level of need. This need satisfaction is an ongoing behavior that determines our everyday actions. Now look at the five groups, or levels, of needs and the definition of each:
1. SURVIVAL—The survival level consists of the basics we need to sustain life itself; for example, oxygen, food, water, sleep, and relief from pain.
2. SAFETY-SECURITY—The safety-security level involves the need for protection from possible threats, such as violence, disease, or poverty. It also includes the need for the security of an adequate job and money in the bank.
3. SOCIAL-BELONGING—The social, or belonging, level concerns the need to be liked and wanted by family, friends, coworkers, and others with whom we associate.
4. ESTEEM—The esteem level involves our feelings of importance. To satisfy our esteem needs, we must get a feeling of importance from two sources. First, we must have a feeling of importance that comes from within; this feeling is self-esteem. Second, since self-esteem alone will not satisfy our esteem needs, we must feel that other people believe we are important.
5. SELF-ACTUALIZATION—Self-actualization is the full realization of our own potential. Simply stated, that means we know our limits and try to perform, within those limits, to our full potential.
These five levels of needs are acted out in behaviors. You, as a leader, with an understanding of these needs, can help your people satisfy their needs and be more successful.
INDIVIDUAL WORTH
What is an individual worth—not in dollars and cents—but to you, to the company , and to the person himself/herself?
You, as a supervisor, will have to determine that through experience. Every person has different wants and desires and has a different emotional makeup. Remember that one trait you cannot change is the emotional makeup of a person, but you may be able to influence the person or situation toward a favorable outcome. If you observe how a person acts, you can often tell how a person feels. If you observe your personnel, you will be able to help them adjust to almost any situation.
Before you can help your personnel adjust to various situations, you must show self-control. That means holding back an impulse to say or do something inappropriate in a situation. Self-control does not mean you never get angry; it means if you do become angry, you control the emotion so you’ll have a better chance of taking appropriate action. To be an effective supervision, you must believe and trust in your subordinates’ basic worth and ability to perform. The smart leader approaches subordinates with positive concern for their growth and development. While trusting in their basic worth and ability to perform is important, be careful not to set up subordinates for failure by expecting too much. Have concern for your subordinates’limitations, and express your concern openly and honestly.
Our mission in the company is to accomplish our assigned duties—do our job. If your subordinates have personal problems, the job will suffer; know what resources are available to help them overcome their problems. Personnel will look up to you with respect and ask for your advice when you show interest in their welfare. With practice and hard work, you will soon develop a knack for knowing the true worth of your people. You then can mold them into highly productive employees.
LEADERSHIP/SUPERVISORY SKILLS Learning Objectives: Recall the process used to translate work requirements into assignments and specific tasks for work center subordinates.
Recall evaluate subordinates’ qualifications to perform tasks. Recall how to develop and publish daily work schedules for subordinates. Recognize the need to provide rating specific expertise to subordinates. Recognize the necessity to coordinate material and safety requirements. Identify the procedures for maintaining qualification records. Identify the elements needed to judge the progress of a job. Recognize the guidelines for giving feedback. Identify reasons for reporting job progress to immediate supervisor. Recognize the necessity for continuous improvement in support of company’s strategy for improving mission readiness. Recall how to participate as a continuous improvement team member. Identify the elements used to evaluate a completed assignment. Recall how to counsel subordinates’ professional performance. Recognize reasons for recognizing, reporting, and rewarding subordinate performance. Recognize methods to resolve conflicts or differences between subordinates. Leadership and supervision go hand in hand. However, although they are closely related, leadership and supervision are two separate roles. Leadership consists of the personality and skill needed to motivate and influence people to do a job. Supervision is the art of making sure the job is done right. Good supervision requires good leadership skills. What makes a person a good supervisor? A good supervisor will first break a job down into individual tasks and then ensure all needed materials are available. He or she will then assign the tasks to the most appropriate persons. Many people think a supervisor’s job is done at this point; however, that definitely is not the case. Indeed, those actions are only the beginning of a supervisor’s job, as you shall see in the following paragraphs.
BREAK THE JOB INTO TASKS When your work group is given a job from an immediate supervisor, the first decision you, as a leader, must make is who will do what. Sound simple? Well, it is simple, providing you know the job, how to get it done, and the capabilities of your crew. This is the planning and organization phase. Jobs that require more than one person to accomplish can be broken into smaller tasks or steps. You can then assign each task or step to a different worker.
A definite sequence of events must be followed to do even the simplest job right. For example, look at the steps involved in painting a bulkhead. First, the Actual behavior is very important, but so are the reason behind it. In most cases, the only way to know how motivated your staff members is through the ways in which they behave. This includes what they say, their gestures, expressions, and stance.
*****Be aware that the systems that your staff use may be demotivating
Reading Behavior
When trying to read behavior, recognize that while body language can give clues to motivation levels, it can also be misread. More concrete signals will be provided by the ways in which individuals perform their tasks: this is likely to give you the clearest indication of their motivation. Some one who works cheerfully and efficiently is unlikely to be hiding anything if they greet you with a smile. Like wise, a dour facial expression should only be interpreted adversely if combined with a grumpy "That's-not-my-job" attitude to work.
*****Look for positive responses to any criticism - they are good signs of motivation in staff
Seeing Enthusiasm
Positive motivation is often signaled by positive gestures: a smile, a eager pose, and a relaxed manner. When people carry out a task in which they are interested or enthusiastic, they may have a "sparkle" in the eyes, since their pupils actually enlarge. Confident eye contact is also important as a measure of motivation: demotivated people are less likely to look you straight in the eye. Blushing can indicate pleasure, while an increased rate of breathing can indicate enthusiasm - both of these are good signs of motivation.
*****Maintain eye contact with your staff whenever you speak with them
Recognizing Motivation
Motivation can be recognized in a number of ways - look particularly for signs that your staff feel useful, optimistic, or able to take opportunities. A team in which each member looks after the others' interest is likely to be a good source of motivation. Look for evidence that your staff are satisfied in their job rather than anxious and frustrated. If you find such signs, ask them whether they are satisfied. You can also establish a good idea of an individual's level of motivation by their attitude towards work. The statements below are all indicative of motivated staff members:
They freely volunteer efforts and ideas, as well as other contributions;
They always react well to request and new assignments
They work to achieve, not "to rule"
They seem to be happy at work
They always respond frankly to question
***Ask your staff if any changes at work would help to motivate them
Learn to see the difference between work problems and personal problems
Recognizing A Motivated Worker
A tidy, organized work space and a well-groomed appearance can initiate a positive attitude to work. A tidy desk is a sign of motivated workers who wish to be able to find the things they need easily, while attention to personal appearance suggests a high level of communication to the job
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Understanding the Individual human behavior.
It follows from the above statements that in order to work insightfully in the area of employee
motivation the supervisor must look at each employee in an effort to understand the individual.
While the human personality is complex and mysterious, there are various ways of bringing
some order to the study of an individual. One scheme is to look at seven aspects of a person and
then to tie them together to see how they make up the total individual. These seven areas are:
1. Intellectual efficiency. This means, "How well does the person think?" How astute
and productive is his thinking? Effectiveness of thinking does not necessarily
coincide with IQ score. Native intelligence does not guarantee intellectual efficiency.
The man with a bright, quick mind may not in the end be as productive as the one
who exercises common sense and good judgment. Look for such qualities as the
capacity to generalize, skill in seeing degrees of difference, and being able to abstract.
We want an orderly thinker but at the same time one who can depart from orderliness
when creativity or novel problems demand it. The real question to be answered is,
"How well does this person use his head in defining and solving problems on his
job?"
2. Personality. Try to understand what characteristics make the individual a unique
person. What are the aspects of him that constitute the flavor and color of his life? Is
he the same calm being inside as he appears to be on the surface? Is there perhaps a
sharp difference between what he feels and what he shows? Look for his feelings,
emotions, and attitudes. These things are interwoven with his interests and goals.
Seek to determine to what degree he is emotionally stable. Is he reasonably adult for
his age? Does he have drive? Does he either over- or under-react?
3. Social characteristics. What happens when this employee and others are brought
together? We're not talking about social characteristics in the sense of etiquette. We
mean, "What really transpires when this person's life touches another person?" Does
he respond to other people? How does he relate to them? What role does he typically
play? Is he primarily dominant or submissive? Is the person sufficiently versatile to
be able to play his part differently in different situations? Is his behavior appropriate
to the business world, or is he seeking the office romance or causing trouble by
gossip, hostility, or insensitivity? Does he know when to act with force and
independence and when to keep quiet? How does he seek to be seen by other people?
The answers to these and similar questions give us a picture of the social skills of the
individual.
4. Self-insight. How well does the person know himself? Does he know what he's really
like and what he looks like to others? Does he give any serious thought to the kind of
person he is now and the kind of person he wants to be? The individual who thinks
about these things with some clarity and has some plans can be said to have good
self-insight.
5. Insight into others. Does the person understand other people? By this we mean, "Does
he know why they act as they do? Can he predict how they are going to feel and act?"
Most people who lack skill in this area fail, not because they are unable to look
carefully and thoughtfully at others, but because they never get around to trying. Most
of us are so wrapped up in our own needs and problems that we too rarely step aside
and look objectively and thoughtfully at the other person.
6. Performance. The key to good job performance is personal organization. The
employee should have good work habits and the sense to discriminate among tasks so
that he keeps on top of the job. He needs to anticipate the job developments that lie
ahead. The good performer incorporates the review function in his work. That is to
say, he looks back after taking action to judge what was right or wrong about what he
did. If he is a manager, he knows how to delegate and how to build other people.
7. Character. What is the employee's philosophy of life? What are the principles that
determine his moral code and the rules he has adopted to play the game of life? Does
he have a coherent set of standards for himself?
These are the types of questions we must ask about each individual whom we want to
influence through the motivational process. Answering these questions will lead to
understanding the real person and what goes on below the surface.
Skill in motivating subordinates is of little value without good selection and proper
training. In other words, you are going to be most effective in motivating people who
have been wisely picked and well prepared for their jobs. Never look for overnight
changes or miraculous, sudden success when you turn your hand to the motivation of
others. Change typically comes slowly.
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2. Explain the various approaches of organizational effectiveness?
An organization's effectiveness is in major part a measure of the effectiveness of its master strategy. Selection of the appropriate basis for assessing organizational effectiveness presents a challenging problem for managers and researchers.
There are no generally accepted conceptualizations prescribing the best criteria. Different organizational situations - pertaining to the performance of the organization's structure, the performance of the organization's human resources, and the impact of the organization's activities -require different criteria.
seven major ways of evaluating organizational effectiveness existed:
1.rational goal model,
2.systems resource model,
3.The bargaining model.
4.managerial process model,
5.organizational development model,.model.
6.The structural functional model.
7. The functional model.
1.The Rational Goal Model
The rational goal approach focuses on the organization's ability to achieve its goals. An organization's goals are identified by establishing the general goal, discovering means or objectives for its accomplishment, and defining a set of activities for each objectives.
The organization is evaluated by comparing the activities accomplished with those planned for. These criteria are determined by various factors.
The rational goal approach focuses on the organization's ability to achieve its goals. An organization's goals are identified by establishing the general goal, discovering means or objectives for its accomplishment, and defining a set of activities for each objectives.
The organization is evaluated by comparing the activities accomplished with those planned for. These criteria are determined by various factors.
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2.The Systems Resource Model
The systems resource model analyzes the decision-makers's capability to efficiently distribute resources among various subsystem's needs. The systems resources model defines the organization as a network of interrelated subsystems.
These subsystems needs may be classified as:
bargaining position -ability of the organization to exploit its environment in acquisition of scarce and valued resources;
ability of the systems' decision-makers to perceive, and correctly interpret, the real properties of the external environment;
ability of the system to produce a certain specified output;
maintenance of internal day-to-day activities;
ability of the organization to co-ordinate relationships among the various subsystems;
ability of the organization to respond to feedback regarding its effectiveness in the environment.
ability of the organization to evaluate the effect of its decisions;
ability of the organization' system to accomplish its goals.
The systems resource model analyzes the decision-makers's capability to efficiently distribute resources among various subsystem's needs. The systems resources model defines the organization as a network of interrelated subsystems. .
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3.The Bargaining Model
Each organizational problem requires a specific allocation of resources. The bargaining model presumes that an organization is a cooperative, sometimes competitive, resource distributing system.
Decisions, problems and goals are more useful when shared by a greater number of people. Each decision-maker bargains with other groups for scarce resources which are vital in solving problems and meeting goals.
The overall outcome is a function of the particular strategies selected by the various decision-makers in their bargaining relationships. This model measures the ability of decision-makers to obtain and use resources for responding to problems important to them.
Each of the subsystems' needs should be evaluated from two focal points: efficiency and stress. Efficiency is an indication of the organization's ability to use its resources in responding to the most subsystems' needs. Stress is the tension produced by the system in fulfilling or not fulfilling its needs.
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4.The Managerial Process Model
The managerial process model assesses the capability an productivity of various managerial processes -decision making, planning, budgeting, and the like -for performing goals.
The managerial process model is based on the intuitive concept of substantial rationality, which interrelates the drives, impulses, wishes, feelings, needs, and values of the individuals to the functional goals of the organization.
The managerial process model assesses the capability an productivity of various managerial processes -decision making, planning, budgeting, and the like -for performing goals.
The managerial process model is based on the intuitive concept of substantial rationality, which interrelates the drives, impulses, wishes, feelings, needs, and values of the individuals to the functional goals of the organization.
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5.The Organizational Development Model
This model appraises the organization's ability to work as a team and to fit the needs of its members. The model focuses on developing practices to foster:
supervisory behavior manifesting interest and concern for workers;
team spirit, group loyalty, and teamwork among workers and between workers and management;
confidence, trust and communication among workers and between workers and management;
more freedom to set their own objectives.
The model's procedure attempts to answer four main questions:
Where are we?;
Where do we want to go?;
How will we get there?;
How will we know when we do get there?
These questions can be divided into four areas: question one is concerned with diagnosis, question two with the setting of goals and plans, question three with the implementation of goals, and question four with evaluation.
This model is concerned with changing beliefs, attitudes, values, and organizational structures so that individuals can be better adopt to new technologies and challenges. It is a process of management by objectives in contrast to management by control.
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6.The Structural Functional Model
The structural functional approach tests the durability and flexibility of the organization's structure for responding to a diversity of situations and events.
According to this model, all systems need maintenance and continuity. The following aspects define this:
security of the organization as whole in relation to the social forces in its environment (this relates to ability to forestall threatened aggressions or deleterious consequences from the actions of others);
stability of lines of authority and communication (this refers to the continued capacity of leadership to control and have access to individuals in the system);
stability of informal relations within the organization;
continuity of policy making (this refers to the ability to reexamine policy an a continuing basis);
homogeneity of outlook (this refers the ability to effectively orient members to organization norms and beliefs).
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7.The Functional Model
In the functional approach an organization's effectiveness is determined by the social consequences of its activities.
The crucial question to be answered is: how well do the organization's activities serve the needs of its client groups?
The appraisal of an organization's effectiveness should consider whether these activities are function or dysfunctions in fulling the organization's goals.
These seven models have their strengths and shortcomings depending upon the organizational situation being evaluated. The choice of evaluation approach usually hinges on the organizational situation that needs to be addressed.
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