Question 1.Describe the four important functions of production/operation manager
2.Define job design. Discuss the impact of job enlargement and job enrichment for designing tje job
3.what is the distinctive feature of job production as compared to mass and batch production systems
4.Write an essay on how organize value engineering function in a tractor manufacturing firm
5.Explain how the system concept can be used in explaining the terms waste,waste management and wastivity
Answer
ROBEL,
HERE IS SOME USEFUL MATERIAL.
REGARDS
LEO LINGHAM
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1) Describe the four important functions performed by Production /Operations manager.
THE FIVE KEY FUNCTIONS OF PRODUCTION/OPERATION MANAGER.
1.*With the Planning & Production Manager, develop, direct the
implementation of production business strategies and activities
to enable the production to achieve output and quality objectives.
2.*Manage and Control the logistics function to ensure supplies of
raw materials, finished goods, parts and accessories are
available within required time frames and budgets.
3.*With the R&D Engineering Manager, develop, direct the
the research & development/ engineering activities to ensure
products and techniques achieve business needs within the
standards set by the market and the regulatory standards bodies.
4.*With the Warehouse and Distribution Manager, develop, direct
and control the warehouse and distribution activities to
ensure the efficient and economical utilisation of facilities
for storing and distributing the finished goods.
5.*Wtih the Manufacturing Services Manager, develop, direct the
implementation of manufacturing sustainability strategies/
actions plans and continuous improvement programs.
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SOME ADDITIONAL RESOURCES.
THE OPERATION MANAGEMENT IS A
MULTI-DISCIPLINARY FUNCTION.
THIS IS FOR A OPERATION/ PRODUCTION SET UP.
OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT [ PRODUCTION ], as a function ,normally includes the
following
-PRODUCT DESIGN
-PROCESS SELECTION
-PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
-PRODUCTION
-PRODUCTION PLANNING
-TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT
-TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT
-MANUFACTURING PROCESS
-CONTINOUS IMPROVEMENTS
-JUST IN TIME INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
-STRATEGIC CAPACITY PLANNING
-FACILITY LAYOUT
-PROJECT PLANNING AND CONTROL
-AGGREGATE PLANNING
-MATERIAL REQUIREMENT PLANNING [ MRP]
-MATERIAL MANAGEMENT
-PROCUREMENT
-BUSINESS PROCESS ENGINEERING
ETC ETC ETC
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THIS IS EXAMPLE OF AN OPERATION/PRODUCTION MANAGER
IN AN MEDIUM SIZE OPERATION.
OPERATION / PRODUCTION MANAGER
Reporting the Operation/ Production Manager are
*Planning/Production Manager, R & D Engineering Manager,
Manufacturing Services Manager, Factory Services Manager,
Warehousing/ Distribution Manager, &Demand Planning Manager.
SCOPE.
Primary Objective.
*Direct and Control a variety of divergent functional business
activities, including Manufacturing, R&D Engineering, Production,
Logistics, Demand Planning, Manufacturing Services, Factory
Services, to achieve optimum Productivity, Profitability and
Effective use of the OPERATION's assets and human resources,
within guidelines set by the Managing Director. Direct planning
activities and provide leadership and guidance on the OPERATION.
SPECIFIC ACCOUNTABILITIES
*Manage and Control the logistics function to ensure supplies of
raw materials, finished goods, parts and accessories are
available within required time frames and budgets.
*With the Planning & Production Manager, develop, direct the
implementation of production business strategies and activities
to enable the production to achieve output and quality objectives.
*With the R&D Engineering Manager, develop, direct the
the research & development/ engineering activities to ensure
products and techniques achieve business needs within the
standards set by the market and the regulatory standards bodies.
*With the Demand Planning Manager, develop, direct and control
the supply activities to maximise the quality and reliability
of raw materials, parts, accessories and finished goods.
*With the Warehouse and Distribution Manager, develop, direct
and control the warehouse and distribution activities to
ensure the efficient and economical utilisation of facilities
for storing and distributing the finished goods.
*Wtih the Manufacturing Services Manager, develop, direct the
implementation of manufacturing sustainability strategies/
actions plans and continuous improvement programs.
*Wtih the Factory Services Manager, develop, direct the
service operations and the factory warehousing management.
MAJOR RESPONSIBILITIES.
*Responsible for directing the operation/ PRODUCTION activities to ensure
the current and future plans of the organization are met.
*Report to the Managing Director on major PRODUCTION /operational issues
and results.
*Participates in group corporate planning and budgeting workshops.
*Responsible for the implementation of Demand Flow
Technology and Six Sigma systems.
*Responsible for establishing PRODUCTION / operation Organization
Structure / Management Process.
*Responsible for the Implementation of Policies / Procedures
throughout the PRODUCTION / Operation Department.
*Responsible for recruitment /selection/orientation/training of senior
personnel of the PRODUCTION / operation department.
*Responsible for purchase of Capital goods/ PRODUCTION Operation equipments.
*Responsible for maintenance of equipments.
*Responsible for PRODUCTION /Operation Department Planning/ Budgeting.
*Responsible for Cost Control Programs.
*Responsible for O H & S Implementation.
*Responsible for Industrial Relations/ Union Negotiation.
*Responsible for Security management.
*Responsible for Building Maintenance.
*Responsible for People Management.
Ensure that personnel under his control have been
inducted into COMPANY 's OHS induction program.
*Take reasonable care for the health, safety and welfare of
themselves and others whilst at work.
*Co-operate with COMPANY management to ensure compliance
with relevant acts, regulations, policies and procedures
imposed in the interest of health, safety and welfare.
*At all times maintain the highest ethical standards, in line
with Corporate Ethics / Policies.
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2)Define Job Design. discuss the importance of job enlargements and job enrichment in designing the job.
job design ---Definition
Work arrangement (or rearrangement) aimed at reducing or overcoming job dissatisfaction and employee alienation arising from repetitive and mechanistic tasks. Through job design, organizations try to raise productivity levels by offering non-monetary rewards such as greater satisfaction from a sense of personal achievement in meeting the increased challenge and responsibility of one's work. Job enlargement, job enrichment, job rotation, and job simplification are the various techniques used in a job design exercise.
BEFORE A JOB DESIGN IS DONE,
A JOB ANALYSIS SHOULD BE CARRIED OUT.
Job Analysis is a process to identify and determine in detail the particular job duties and requirements and the relative importance of these duties for a given job. Job Analysis is a process where judgements are made about data collected on a job.
There are two key elements of a job analysis:
1. Identification of major job requirements (MJRs) which are the most important duties and responsibilities of the position to be filled. They are the main purpose or primary reasons the position exists. The primary source of MJRs is the most current, official position description.
2. Identification of knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs) required to accomplish each MJR and the quality level and amount of the KSAs needed. Most job analyses deal with KSAs that are measurable, that can be documented, and produce meaningful differences between candidates. Typically, possession of KSAs is demonstrated by experience, education, or training. The goal of KSAs is to identify those candidates who are potentially best qualified to perform the position to be filled; they are most useful when they provide meaningful distinctions among qualified candidates. Source documents for KSAs may be the position description, HRM standard qualifications and job classification standards.
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Job Analysis should collect information on the following areas:
Duties and Tasks The basic unit of a job is the performance of specific tasks and duties. Information to be collected about these items may include: frequency, duration, effort, skill, complexity, equipment, standards, etc.
Environment This may have a significant impact on the physical requirements to be able to perform a job. The work environment may include unpleasant conditions such as offensive odors and temperature extremes. There may also be definite risks to the incumbent such as noxious fumes, radioactive substances, hostile and aggressive people, and dangerous explosives.
Tools and Equipment Some duties and tasks are performed using specific equipment and tools. Equipment may include protective clothing. These items need to be specified in a Job Analysis.
Relationships Supervision given and received. Relationships with internal or external people.
Requirements The knowledges, skills, and abilities (KSA's) required to perform the job. While an incumbent may have higher KSA's than those required for the job, a Job Analysis typically only states the minimum requirements to perform the job.
What does or should the person do?
What knowledge, skill, and abilities does it take to perform this job?
What is the result of the person performing the job?
How does this job fit in with other jobs in the organization?
What is the jobs contribution toward the organizations goals?
The process may seek to obtain information about the:
work
worker
context within which the job exists
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Worker Functions. The relationship of the worker to data, people, and things.
Work Fields. The techniques used to complete the tasks of the job. Over 100 such fields have been identified. This descriptor also includes the machines, tools, equipment, and work aids that are used in the job.
Materials, Products, Subject Matter, and/or Services. The outcomes of the job or the purpose of performing the job.
Worker Traits. The aptitudes, educational and vocational training, and personal traits required of the worker.
Physical Demands. Job requirements such as strength, observation, and talking. This descriptor also includes the physical environment of the work.
skills
abilities
knowledge
tasks
work activities
work context
experience levels required
job interests
work values/needs
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Ergonomics is the science of fitting jobs to people. The discipline encompasses a body of knowledge about physical abilities and limitations as well as other human characteristics that are relevant to job design. Essentially, ergonomics is the relationship between the worker and the job and focuses on the design of work areas to enhance job performance. Ergonomics can help prevent injuries and limit secondary injuries as well as accommodate individuals with various disabilities, including those with musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs).
ERGONOMICS HELPS WORK ORGANIZATION
How can work organization help prevent work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) that can result from using hand tools?
People working at a correctly designed workstation and using the best available tools can still get injured. It happens where their work is poorly designed. Work organization involves:
job content -- task variety
work pace
work breaks
rest breaks
adjustment or acclimatization time
training
SOCIO-TECNICAL APPROACH TO JOB DESIGN
Socio-technical system
A sociotechnical system is the term usually given to any instantiation of socio and technical elements engaged in goal directed behaviour. Sociotechnical systems are a particular expression of sociotechnical theory, although they are not necessarily one and the same thing. Sociotechnical systems theory is a mixture of sociotechnical theory, joint optimisation and so forth and general systems theory. The term sociotechnical system recognises that organisations have boundaries and that transactions occur within the system (and its sub-systems) and between the wider context and dynamics of the environment. It is an extension of Sociotechnical Theory which provides a richer descriptive and conceptual language for describing, analysing and designing organisations. A Sociotechnical System, therefore, often describes a thing (an interlinked, systems based mixture of people, technology and their environment).
Socio-technical systems approach
Socio-technical systems in organizational development is the term for an approach to complex organizational work design that recognizes the interaction between people and technology in workplaces. The term also refers to the interaction between society's complex infrastructures and human behaviour. In this sense, society itself, and most of its sub-structures, are complex socio-technical systems.
FIRST,THE APPROACH SHOULD BE APPLIED TO THE ORGANIZATION
IN DESIGNING.
A sociotechnical systems approach to designing organizations is based upon a set of guiding propositions:
The design of the organization must fit its goals.
Employees must be actively involved in designing the structure of the organization.
Control of variances in production or service must be undertaken as close to their source as possible.
Subsystems must be designed around relatively self-contained and recognizable units of work.
Support systems must fit in with the design of the organization.
The design should allow for a high quality of working life.
Changes should continue to be made as necessary to meet the changing environmental pressures.
Motivation Factors
It has been suggested that four categories of job characteristic are significant in terms of motivation and performance:
responsible autonomy- the group's acceptance of responsibility for the production cycle, output rate, quality, and quantity of output;
adaptability;
variety;
participation.
Autonomous behavior includes the self-regulation by the group of work content, critical self-evaluation of work group performance, self-adjustment to cope with changes, and participation in goal setting.
Limitations
The socio-technical systems approach is not without its limitations. Whilst many advantages can result from focusing on the work group rather than the individuals and their jobs, autonomous group working does not seem to have widespread appeal.
Certainly the roles of both supervision and specialist advisers are considerably affected and in some cases eliminated.
Movement of personnel between work groups with high levels of autonomy may be difficult, hence removing some of management's flexibility.
Difficulties are often experienced in implementation in existing work situations.
A participative design process is not acceptable in many organizations and can be very time-consuming.
Alternative ways of organizing work are not always apparent where existing technology has to be employed.
Management are often not prepared to take the risk of introducing radically different approaches to organizing work alongside other changes which already have a high element of disruption and associated risk.
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Approaches to Job Design USING SOCIO TECHNICAL SYSTEMS
There are three important approaches to job design, viz.,
Engineering approach,
Human approach and
The Job characteristic approach.
Engineering Approach
The most important single element in the Engineering approaches, proposed by FW Taylor and others, was the task idea, The work of every workman is fully planned out by the management at least one day in advance and each man receives in most cases complete written instructions, describing in detail the task which he is to accomplish . . . This task specifies not only what is to be done but how it is to be done and the exact time allowed for doing it. The principles offered by scientific management to job design can be summarised thus:
l Work should be scientifically studied. As advocated fragmentation and routinisation of work to reap the advantages of specialisation.
l Work should be arranged so that workers can be efficient.
l Employees selected for work should be matched to the demands of the job.
l Employees should be trained to perform the job.
l Monetary compensation should be used to reward successful performance of the job.
These principles to job design seem to be quite rational and appealing because they point towards increased organisational performance. Specialisation and routinisation over a period of time result in job incumbents becoming experts rather quickly, leading to higher levels of output. Despite the assumed gains in efficiency, behavioural scientists have found that some job incumbents dislike specialised and routine jobs.
Human Relations Approach
The human relations approach recognised the need to design jobs in an interesting manner. In the past two decades much work has been directed to changing jobs so that job incumbents can satisfy their needs for growth, recognition and responsibilility, enhancing need satisfaction through what is called job enrichment. One widely publicised approach to job enrichment uses what is called job characteristics model and this has been explained separately in the ensuing section.
Two types of factors, viz. (i) motivators like achievements, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement and growth and (ii) hygiene factors (which merely maintain the employee on the job and in the organization) like working conditions, organisational policies, inter-personnel relations, pay and job security. The employee is dissatisfied with the job if maintenance factors to the required degree are not introduced into the job. But, the employee may not be satisfied even if the required maintenance factors are provided. The employee will be satisfied with his job and he will be more productive if motivators are introduced into the job content. As such, he asserts that the job designer has to introduce hygienic factors adequately to reduce dissatisfaction and build motivating factors. Thus, THE emphasis is on the psychological needs of the employees in designing jobs.
The Job Characteristics Approach
The Job Characteristics Theory states that employees will work hard when they are rewarded for the work they do and when the work gives them satisfaction. Hence, they suggest that motivation, satisfaction and performance should be integrated in the job design. According to this approach, any job can be described in terms of five core job dimensions which are defined as follows:
(a) Skill variety: The degree to which the job requires that workers use a variety of different activities, talents and skills in order to successfully complete the job requirements.
(b) Task identity: The degree to which the job allows workers to complete whole tasks from start to finish, rather than disjointed portions of the job.
(c) Task significance: The degree to which the job significantly impacts the lives of others both within and outside the workplace.
(d) Autonomy: The degree to which the job allows workers freedom in planning and scheduling and the methods used to complete the job.
(e) Feedback: The degree to which the job itself provides workers with clear, direct and understandable knowledge of their performance.
All of the job dimensions impact workers psychologically. The first three dimensions affect whether or not workers view their job as meaningful. Autonomy determines the extent of responsibility workers feel. Feedback allows for feelings of satisfaction for a job well done by providing knowledge of results.
The core job dimensions can be combined into a single predictive index called the Motivating Potential Score. Its computation is as follows:
Motivating Skill variety + Task identity + Task significance
potential = x Autonomy x Feedback
score
Jobs that are high on motivating potential must be high at least in one of the three factors that lead to meaningful work and must be high in both autonomy and feedback and vice versa. These three critical psychological states lead to the outcome such as (a) high internal work motivation, (b) high growth satisfaction, (c) high quality work performance, (d) high general job satisfaction, (e) high work effectiveness and (f) low absenteeism and turnover . The model says that internal rewards are obtained by an individual when he learns that he personally has performed well on a task that he cares about.
The following guidelines have been developed for designing jobs:
1. A job needs to be reasonably demanding for the individual in terms other than sheer endurance and yet provide some variety (not necessarily novelty).
2. Employees need to be able to learn on the job and to go on learning.
3. Employees need some minimum area of decision making that they can call their own.
4. Employees need some minimal degree of social support and recognition at the workplace.
5. Employees need to be able to relate what they do and what they produce to their social life.
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job enlargement
An increase in the number of tasks that an employee performs. It is associated with the design of jobs to reduce employee dissatisfaction.
In certain circumstances, the job description is
Enlarged to accommodate certain talented applicants.
The enlargement expands the scope of the job ,
In an horizontal manner , and not vertical.
Job enlargement means increasing the scope of a job through extending the range of its duties and responsibilities. This contradicts the principles of specialisation and the division of labour whereby work is divided into small units, each of which is performed repetitively by an individual worker. Some motivational theories suggest that the boredom and alienation caused by the division of labour can actually cause efficiency to fall. Thus, job enlargement seeks to motivate workers through reversing the process of specialisation. A typical approach might be to replace assembly lines with modular work; instead of an employee repeating the same step on each product, they perform several tasks on a single item. In order for employees to be provided with Job Enlargement they will need to be retrained in new fields whaich can prove to be a lengthy process.
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job enrichment
An increase in the number of tasks that an employee performs and an increase in the control over those tasks. It is associated with the design of jobs and is an extension of job enlargement.
Job enrichment in organizational development, human resources management, and organizational behavior, is the process of improving work processes and environments so they are more satisfying for employees. Many jobs are monotonous and unrewarding. Workers can feel dissatisfied in their position due to a lack of a challenge, repetitive procedures, or an over-controlled authority structure. Job enrichment tries to eliminate these dysfunctional elements, and bring better performance to the workplace.
Job enrichment, as a managerial activity includes a three steps technique:
1. Turn employees' effort into performance:
Ensuring that objectives are well-defined and understood by everyone. The overall corporate mission statement should be communicated to all. Individual's goals should also be clear. Each employee should know exactly how she fits into the overall process and be aware of how important her contributions are to the organization and its customers.
Providing adequate resources for each employee to perform well. This includes support functions like information technology, communication technology, and personnel training and development.
Creating a supportive corporate culture. This includes peer support networks, supportive management, and removing elements that foster mistrust and politicking.
Free flow of information. Eliminate secrecy.
Provide enough freedom to facilitate job excellence. Encourage and reward employee initiative. Flextime or compressed hours could be offered.
Provide adequate recognition, appreciation, and other motivators.
Provide skill improvement opportunities. This could include paid education at universities or on the job training.
Provide job variety. This can be done by job sharing or job rotation programmes.
It may be necessary to re-engineer the job process. This could involve redesigning the physical facility, redesign processes, change technologies, simplification of procedures, elimination of repetitiveness, redesigning authority structures.
2. Link employees performance directly to reward:
Clear definition of the reward is a must
Explanation of the link between performance and reward is important
Make sure the employee gets the right reward if performs well
If reward is not given, explanation is needed
3. Make sure the employee wants the reward. How to find out?
Ask them
Use surveys( checklist, listing, questions)
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3)Discuss the difference in approach for Production Planning & Control among mass, batch and job shop production.
Job production
Job production involves producing a one-off product for a specific customer. Job production is most often associated with small firms (making railings for a specific house, building/repairing a computer for a specific customer, making flower arrangements for a specific wedding etc.) but large firms use job production too. Examples include:
Designing and implementing an advertising campaign
Auditing the accounts of a large PUBLIC COMPANY.
Building a new factory
Installing machinery in a factory
Key benefits of job production include:
work is generally of a high quality
a high level of customisation is possible to meet the customer's exact requirements
significant flexibility is possible, especially when compared to mass production.
workers can be easily motivated due to the skilled nature of the work they are performing
Disadvantages include:
higher cost of production
requires the use of specialist labour (compare with the repetitive, low-skilled jobs in mass production.
slow compared to other methods of production.
Essential features
There are a number of features that should be implemented in a job production environment, they include:
Clear definitions of objectives should be set.
Clearly outlined decision making process.
MOSTLY LARGE CONSTRUCTION COMPANIES.
BECTHEL CORPORATION [US]
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Batch production is a manufacturing used to produce or process any product in BATCHES, as opposed to a CONTINUOUS PRODUCTION process, or a one-off production. The primary characeristic of batch production is that all components are completed at a workstation before they move to the next one. Batch production is popular in bakeries and in the manufacture of sports shoes, pharmaceutical ingredients, inks, paints and adhesives. In the manufacture of inks and paints, a technique called a colour-run is used. A colour-run is where one manufactures the lightest color first, such as light yellow followed by the next increasingly darker colour such as orange, then red and so on until reaching black and then starts over again. This minimizes the cleanup and reconfiguring of the machinery between each batch. White (by which is meant opaque paint, not transparent ink) is the only colour that cannot be used in a colour run due to the fact that a small amount of white pigment can adversely affect the medium colours.
There are inefficiencies associated with batch production. The production equipment must be stopped, re-configured, and its output tested before the next batch can be produced. Time between batches is known as 'down time'.
Batch production is useful for a factory that makes seasonal items or products for which it is difficult to FORECAST demand.
There are several advantages of batch production; it can reduce initial capital outlay because a single production line can be used to produce several PRODUCTS. As shown in the example, batch production can be useful for small businesses who cannot afford to run continuous production lines. Also, companies can use batch production as a trial run. If a retailer buys a batch of a product that does not sell then the producer can cease production without having to sustain huge losses.
MOST PHARMACEUTICAL COMPANIES.
PFIZER [US]
BAXTER [ US ]
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Mass production (also called flow production, repetitive flow production, or series production) is the production of large amounts of standardized products on PRODUCTION LINES.
Mass production typically uses moving tracks or conveyor belts to move partially complete products to workers, who perform simple repetitive tasks to permit very high rates of production per worker, allowing the high-volume manufacture of inexpensive finished goods. Mass production is CAPITAL INTENSIVE , as it uses a high proportion of machinery in relation to workers. With fewer labour costs and a faster rate of production, capital is increased while expenditure is decreased. However the machinery that is needed to set up a mass production line is so expensive that there must be some assurance that the product is to be successful so the company can get a return on its investment. Machinery for mass production such as ROBOTS and MACHINE PRESSES have high installation costs as well. Thus, mass production is ideally suited to serve large, relatively homogenous populations of consumers, whose demand would satisfy the long production runs required by this method of manufacturing. As such, it is not surprising that, given a number of other factors, mass production first became prevalent in the United States.
One of the descriptions of mass production is that the craftsmanship is in the workbench itself, not the training of the worker; rather than having a skilled worker measure every dimension of each part of the product against the plans or the other parts as it is being formed, there are JIGS and GAUGE BLOCKS that are ready at hand to ensure that the part is made to fit this set-up. It has already been checked that the finished part will be to specifications to fit all the other finished parts - and it will be made quicker, with no time spent on finishing the parts to fit one another. This is the specialized capital required for mass production; each workbench is different and each set of tools at each workbench limited to those necessary to make one part. As each of these parts is uniformly and consistently constructed, interchangeability of components is thus another hallmark of mass produced goods.
Use of assembly lines in mass production
Mass production systems are usually organized into assembly lines. The assemblies pass by on a conveyor, or if they are heavy, hung from an overhead monorail.
In a factory for a complex product, rather than one assembly line, there may be many auxiliary assembly lines feeding sub-assemblies (i.e. car engines or seats) to a backbone "main" assembly line. A diagram of a typical mass-production factory looks more like the skeleton of a fish than a single line.
Advantages and disadvantages
The economies of mass production come from several sources. The primary cause is a reduction of nonproductive effort of all types. In craft production, the craftsman must bustle about a shop, getting parts and assembling them. He must locate and use many tools many times for varying tasks. In mass production, each worker repeats one or a few related tasks that use the same tool to perform identical or near-identical operations on a stream of products. The exact tool and parts are always at hand, having been moved down the assembly line consecutively. The worker spends little or no time retrieving and/or preparing materials and tools, and so the time taken to manufacture a product using mass production is shorter than when using traditional methods.
The probability of human error and variation is also reduced, as tasks are predominantly carried out by machinery. A reduction in labour costs, as well as an increased rate of production, enables a company to produce a larger quantity of one product at a lower cost than using traditional, non-linear methods.
However, mass production is inflexible because it is difficult to alter a design or production process after a production line is implemented. Also, all products produced on one production line will be identical or very similar, and introducing variety to satisfy individual tastes is not easy. However, some variety can be achieved by applying different finishes and decorations at the end of the production line if necessary.
MOSTLY MOTOR VEHICLES.
FORD MOTORS [ US ]
GENERAL MOTORS [US]
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FLOW PRODUCTION
Flow production involves a continuous movement of items through the production process. This means that when one task is finished the next task must start immediately. Therefore, the time taken on each task must be the same.
Flow production (often known as mass production) involves the use of production lines such as in a car manufacturer where doors, engines, bonnets and wheels are added to a chassis as it moves along the assembly line. It is appropriate when firms are looking to produce a high volume of similar items. Some of the big brand names that have consistently high demand are most suitable for this type of production:
Heinz baked beans
Kelloggs corn flakes
Mars bars
Advantages
Flow production is capital intensive. This means it uses a high proportion of machinery in relation to workers, as is the case on an assembly line. The advantage of this is that a high number of products can roll off assembly lines at very low cost. This is because production can continue at night and over weekends and also firms can benefit from economies of scale, which should lower the cost per unit of production.
Disadvantages
The main disadvantage is that with so much machinery it is very difficult to alter the production process. This makes production inflexible and means that all products have to be very similar or standardised and cannot be tailored to individual tastes. However some variety can be achieved by applying different finishes, decorations etc at the end of the production line.
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4] What is Value engineering & analysis? Explain how to organise value-engineering function in a tractor manufacturing firm?
Value Engineering is a systematic method to improve the "Value" of goods and services by using an examination of function. Value, as defined, is the ratio of Function to Cost. Value can therefore be increased by either improving the Function or reducing the cost. It is a primary tenet of Value Engineering that basic functions be preserved and not be reduced as a consequence of pursuing Value improvements.
Value Engineering is a body of knowledge as a technique in which the value of a systems outputs is optimized by crafting a mix of performance (Function) and costs. In most cases this practice identifies and removes unnecessary expenditures, thereby increasing the value for the manufacturer and/or their customers.
Value Engineering uses rational logic (a unique "how" - "why" questioning technique) and the analysis of Function to identify relationships that increase Value. It is considered a quantitative method similar to the Scientific Method, which focuses on Hypothesis - Conclusion to test relationships, and Operations Research, which uses model building to identify predictive relationships.
VALUE ANALYSIS -- The Job Plan
Value Engineering is often done by systematically following a multi-stage Job Plan. IT IS a 8-step procedure , called the Value Analysis Job Plan. Others have varied the Job Plan to fit their constraints. One modern version has the following eight steps:
PREPARATION
INFORMATION
ANALYSIS
CREATION
EVALUATION
DEVELOPMENT
PRESENTATION
FOLLOW-UP
Four basic steps in the VALUE ANALYSIS Job Plan are:
Information gathering - This asks what the requirements are for the object. Function analysis, an important technique in value engineering, is usually done in this initial stage. It tries to determine what functions or performance characteristics are important. It asks questions like; What does the object do? What must it do? What should it do? What could it do? What must it not do?
Alternative generation (Creation) - In this stage value engineers ask; What are the various alternative ways of meeting requirements? What else will perform the desired function?
Evaluation - In this stage all the alternatives are assessed by evaluating how well they meet the required functions and how great will the cost savings be.
Presentation - In the final stage, the best alternative will be chosen and presented to the client for final decision.
How it works
VE follows a structured thought process to evaluate options.
Gather information
1. What is being done now?
Who is doing it?
What could it do?
What must not to do?
Measure
2. How will the alternatives be measured?
What are the alternate ways of meeting requirements?
What else can perform the desired function?
Analyze
3. What must be done?
What does it Cost?
Generate
4. What else will do the job?
Evaluate
5. Which Ideas are the best?
6. Develop and Expand Ideas What are the impacts? What is the cost? What is the performance?
7. Present Ideas Sell Alternatives
VALUE ENGINEERING
Value engineering is an approach to productivity improvement that attempts to increase the value obtained by a customer of a product by offering the same level of functionality at a lower cost.
Value engineering is sometimes used to apply to this process of cost reduction prior to manufacture, while "value analysis" applies the process to products currently being manufactured.
Both attempt to eliminate costs that do not contribute to the value and performance of the product (or service, but the approach is more common in manufacturing).
Value engineering, thus, critically examines the contribution made to product value by each feature of a design. It then looks to deliver the same contribution at lower cost.
Different types of value are recognised by the approach :
Use value relates to the attributes of a product which enable it to perform its function.
Cost value is the total cost of producing the product.
Esteem value is the additional premium price which a product can attract because of its intrinsic attractiveness to purchasers.
Exchange value is the sum of the attributes which enable the product to be exchanged or sold.
Although the relative magnitude of these different types of value will vary between products, and perhaps over the life of a product, VE attempts to identify the contribution of each feature to each type of value through systematic analysis and structured creativity enhancing techniques.
Value engineering programs are best delivered by multi-skilled teams consisting of designers, purchasing specialists, operations personnel, and financial analysts.
Pareto analysis is often used to prioritise those parts of the total design that are most worthy of attention. These are then subject to rigorous scrutiny. The team analyses the function and cost of those elements and tries to find any similar components that could do the same job at lower cost.
Common results are a reduction in the number of components, the use of cheaper materials, or a simplification of the process
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VALUE ENGINEERING CAN BE APPLIED TO A TRACTOR MANUFACTURING
FIRM IN THE FOLLOWING AREAS
1.TRACTOR DESIGN
-make the design simple
- easy to use
-reduce COMPLICATED / expensive parts.
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2.TRACTORS RAW MATERIAL / PARTS PROCUREMENT
-establish the demand planning system [ reduce the fluctuations in production]
-establish the inventories of raw materials [ reduce the cost of stock holding]
-establish the economic order quantity [ """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""]
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3. TRACTORS PRODUCTION PLANNING
-establish an effective / efficient production planning system [ cost savings]
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4.TRACTORS PRODUCTION
-establish a lean production [ cost effective]
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5. TRACTORS TOTAL QUALITY ASSURANCE.
-set up quality assurance system to reduce quality problems/ rejections]
[ cost savings ]
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6.TRACTORS FINISHED GOOD INVENTORY
-match the finished stock inventory to market demand / sales requirements]
[ cost saving in stock holding ]
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7.TRACTORS CUSTOMER SERVICE
-provide effective customer order processing/order service/
timely despatch to customers.
[ adds value to customers / reduces distribution cost]
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8.TRACTORS AFTER SALES SERVICE
-offer warranty/ after sales service to customers
[ adds value to the product and increases sales ]
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TRACTORS MANUFACTURER CAN ADD VALUE/ REDUCE COST
BY APPLYING THE VALUE ANALYSIS -JOB PLAN TO EACH
OF THE ABOVE LISTED 8 STAGES OF TRACTORS MANUFACTURING.
VALUE ANALYSIS -- The Job Plan
Value Engineering is often done by systematically following a multi-stage Job Plan. IT IS a 8-step procedure , called the Value Analysis Job Plan. Others have varied the Job Plan to fit their constraints. One modern version has the following eight steps:
PREPARATION
INFORMATION
ANALYSIS
CREATION
EVALUATION
DEVELOPMENT
PRESENTATION
FOLLOW-UP
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5) Explain how the system concept can be used in explaining the terms waste, waste
management and wastivity.
System Concept Development begins when the Concept Proposal has been formally approved and requires study and analysis that may lead to system development activities.
The review and approval of the Concept Proposal begins the formal studies and analysis of the need in the System Concept Development Phase and begins the life cycle of an identifiable project.
TASKS AND ACTIVITIES
The following activities are performed as part of the System Concept Development Phase.
PHASE ONE
1. Study and Analyze the Business Need
The project team, supplemented by enterprise architecture or other technical experts, if needed, should analyze all feasible technical, business process, and commercial alternatives to meeting the business need. These alternatives should then be analyzed from a life cycle cost perspective. The results of these studies should show a range of feasible alternatives based on life cycle cost, technical capability, and scheduled availability. Typically, these studies should narrow the system technical approaches to only a few potential, desirable solutions that should proceed into the subsequent life cycle phases.
2. Plan the Project
The project team should develop high-level (baseline) schedule, cost, and performance measures which are summarized in the System Boundary Document. These high-level estimates are further refined in subsequent phases.
3. Form the Project Acquisition Strategy
The acquisition strategy should be included in the SBD. The project team should determine the strategies to be used during the remainder of the project concurrently with the development of the CBA and Feasibility Study. Will the work be accomplished with available staff or do contractors need to be hired? Discuss available and projected technologies, such as reuse or Commercial Off-the-Shelf and potential contract types.
4. Study and Analyze the Risks
Identify any programmatic or technical risks. The risks associated with further development should also be studied. The results of these assessments should be summarized in the SBD and documented in the Risk Management Plan and CBA.
5. Obtain Project Funding, Staff and Resources
Estimate, justify, submit requests for, and obtain resources to execute the project in the format of the Capital Asset Plan and Justification,
6. Document the Phase Efforts
The results of the phase efforts are documented in the System Boundary Document, Cost Benefit Analysis, Feasibility Study, and Risk Management Plan.
7. Review and Approval to Proceed
The results of the phase efforts are presented to project stakeholders and decision makers together with a recommendation to (1) proceed into the next life-cycle phase, (2) continue additional conceptual phase activities, or (3) terminate the project. The emphasis of the review should be on (1) the successful accomplishment of the phase objectives, (2) the plans for the next life-cycle phase, and (3) the risks associated with moving into the next life-cycle phase. The review also addresses the availability of resources to execute the subsequent life-cycle phases. The results of the review should be documented reflecting the decision on the recommended action.
PHASE TWO
ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
Sponsor. The sponsor should provide direction and sufficient study resources to commence the System Concept Development Phase.
Project Manager. The appointed project manager is charged with leading the efforts to accomplish the System Concept Development Phase tasks discussed above. The Project Manager is also responsible for reviewing the deliverables for accuracy, approving deliverables and providing status reports to management.
Component Chief Information Officer (CIO) and Executive Review Board (ERB). The CIO/ERB approve the Systems Boundary Document. Approval allows the project to enter the Planning Phase.
PHASE THREE
DELIVERABLES
The following deliverables shall be initiated during the System Concept Development Phase:
1. System Boundary Document - Identifies the scope of a system (or capability). It should contain the high level requirements, benefits, business assumptions, and program costs and schedules. It records management decisions on the envisioned system early in its development and provides guidance on its achievement. Appendix C-2 provides a template for the Systems Boundary Document.
2. Cost-Benefit Analysis - Provides cost or benefit information for analyzing and evaluating alternative solutions to a problem and for making decisions about initiating, as well as continuing, the development of information technology systems. The analysis should clearly indicate the cost to conform to the architectural standards in the Technical Reference Model (TRM). Appendix C-3 provides a template for the Cost-Benefit Analysis.
3. Feasibility Study - Provides an overview of a business requirement or opportunity and determines if feasible solutions exist before full life-cycle resources are committed. Appendix C-4 provides a template for the Feasibility Study.
4. Risk Management Plan - Identifies project risks and specifies the plans to reduce or mitigate the risks. Appendix C-5 provides a template for the Risk Management Plan.
PHASE FOUR
ISSUES FOR CONSIDERATION
After the SBD is approved and a recommendation is accepted by the program and/or executive management, the system project planning begins. A number of project continuation and project approach decisions are taken by the Project Manager.
1. ADP Position Sensitivity Analysis
All projects must ensure that all personnel are cleared to the appropriate level before performing work on sensitive systems. Automated Data Processing (ADP) position designation analysis applies to all DOJ personnel, including contract support personnel who are nominated to fill an ADP position. ADP positions are those that require access to DOJ ADP systems or require work on management, design, development, operation, or maintenance of DOJ automated information systems. The sensitivity analysis should be conducted only to determine an individuals eligibility or continued eligibility for access to DOJ ADP systems or to unclassified sensitive information. Such an analysis is not to be construed as the sole determination of eligibility.
2. Identification of Sensitive Systems
Public Law 100-235, the Computer security Act of 1987, requires Federal agencies to identify systems that contain sensitive information. In general, a sensitive system is a computer system that processes, stores, or transmits sensitive-but-unclassified (SBU) data. SBU data are any information that the loss, misuse, or unauthorized access to, or modification of, could adversely affect the national interest, the conduct of DOJ programs, or the privacy to which individuals are entitled under the Privacy Act. Guidelines for the identification of sensitive systems can be found with the DOJ IMSS. These procedures will help determine the type of sensitivity level to the data that will be processed, stored, and transmitted by the new or changed system.
3. Project Continuation Decisions
The feasibility study and CBA confirm that the defined information management concept is significant enough to warrant an IT project with life-cycle management activities.
The feasibility study should confirm that the information management need or opportunity is beyond the capabilities of existing systems and that developing a new system is a promising approach.
The CBA confirms that the projected benefits of the proposed approach justify the projected resources required. The funding, personnel, and other resources shall be made available to proceed with the Planning Phase.
PHASE REVIEW ACTIVITY
The System Concept Development Review shall by performed at the end of this phase. The review ensures that the goals and objectives of the system are identified and that the feasibility of the system is established. Products of the System Concept Development Phase are reviewed including the budget, risk, and user requirements. This review is organized, planned, and led by the Program Manager and/or representative.
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Waste management systems concepts
THE WASTE MANAGEMENT ADOPTS A VERY SIMILAR
APPROACH IN THEIR PLANNING/ IMPLEMENTATION.
A.OBJECTIVE
B. TASKS AND ACTIVITIES
1 .Study and Analyze the Business Need
2. Plan the Project
3. Form the Project Strategy
4.Obtain Project Funding, Staff and Resources
5. Document the Phase Efforts
B. ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
C. DELIVERABLES
1. System Boundary Document
2. Cost Benefit Analysis
3. Feasibility Study
4. Risk Management Plan
D. ISSUES FOR CONSIDERATION
There are a number of concepts of waste management systems which vary in their usage between countries or regions. This presents some of the most general, widely-used concepts.
WASTE HIERARCHY
The waste hierarchy refers to the "3 Rs" reduce, reuse and recycle, which classify waste management strategies according to their desirability in terms of waste minimization. The waste hierarchy remains the cornerstone of most waste minimization strategies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of waste
PREVENTION
MINIMISING
REUSE
RECYCLE
ENERGY RECOVERY
DISPOSAL
Waste management system is the collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal of waste materials. The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity, and is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, aesthetics or amenity. Waste management is also carried out to reduce the materials' effect on the environment and to recover resources from them. Waste management can involve solid, liquid or gaseous substances, with different methods and fields of expertise for each.
Waste management practices differ for developed and developing nations, for urban and rural areas, and for residential and industrial, producers. Management for non-hazardous residential and institutional waste in metropolitan areas is usually the responsibility of local government authorities, while management for non-hazardous commercial and industrial waste is usually the responsibility of the generator.
Waste management system methods
Waste management methods for vary widely between areas for many reasons, including type of waste material, nearby land uses, and the area available.
Disposal system
Landfill system
Disposing of waste in a landfill involves burying waste to dispose of it, and this remains a common practice in most countries. Historically, landfills were often established in disused quarries, mining voids or borrow pits. A properly-designed and well-managed landfill can be a hygienic and relatively inexpensive method of disposing of waste materials. Older, poorly-designed or poorly-managed landfills can create a number of adverse environmental impacts such as wind-blown litter, attraction of vermin, and generation of liquid leachate. Another common byproduct of landfills is gas (mostly composed of methane and carbon dioxide), which is produced as organic waste breaks down anaerobically. This gas can create odor problems, kill surface vegetation, and is a greenhouse gas.
Design characteristics of a modern landfill include methods to contain leachate such as clay or plastic lining material. Deposited waste is normally compacted to increase its density and stability, and covered to prevent attracting vermin (such as mice or rats). Many landfills also have landfill gas extraction systems installed to extract the landfill gas. Gas is pumped out of the landfill using perforated pipes and flared off or burnt in a gas engine to generate electricity.
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Incineration system
Incineration is disposal method that involves combustion of waste material. Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as "thermal treatment". Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam, and ash.
Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals, and on a large scale by industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous waste. It is recognised as a practical method of disposing of certain hazardous waste materials (such as biological medical waste), though it remains a controversial method of waste disposal in many places due to issues such as emission of gaseous pollutants.
Incineration is common in countries such as Japan where land is more scarce, as these facilities generally do not require as much area as landfills. Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) are broad terms for incinerator facilities that burn waste in a furnace or boiler to generate heat, steam and/or electricity.
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Recycling system
The process of extracting resources or value from waste is generally referred to as recycling, meaning to recovery or reuse the material. There are a number of different methods by which waste material is recycled: the raw materials may be extracted and reprocessed, or the calorific content of the waste may be converted to electricity. New methods of recycling and are being developed continuously, and are described briefly below.
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Physical Reprocessing system
The popular meaning of recycling in most developed countries refers to the widespread collection and reuse of everyday waste materials such as empty beverage containers. These are collected and sorted into common types so that the raw materials from which the items are made can be reprocessed into new products. Material for recycling may be collected separately from general waste using dedicated bins and collection vehicles, or sorted directly from mixed waste streams.
The most common consumer products recycled include aluminium beverage cans, steel food and aerosol cans, HDPE and PET bottles, glass bottles and jars, paperboard cartons, newspapers, magazines, and cardboard. Other types of plastic (PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS: see resin identification code) are also recyclable, although these are not as commonly collected. These items are usually composed of a single type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle into new products. The recycling of complex products (such as computers and electronic equipment) is more difficult, due to the additional dismantling and separation required.
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Biological processing system
Waste materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material, food scraps, and paper products, can be recycled using biogical composting and digestion processes to decompose the organic matter. The resulting organic material is then recycled as mulch or compost for agricultural or landscaping purposes. In addition, waste gas from the process (such as methane) can be captured and used for generating electricity. The intention of biological processing in waste management is to control and accelerate the natural process of decomposition of organic matter.
There are a large variety of composting and digestion methods and technologies varying in complexity from simple home compost heaps, to industrial-scale enclosed-vessel digestion of mixed domestic waste (see Mechanical biological treatment). Methods of biological decomposition are differentiated as being aerobic or anaerobic methods, though hybrids of the two methods also exist.
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Energy recovery system
The energy content of waste products can be recycled by using them as fuel. Recycling through thermal treatment ranges from using waste as a fuel source for cooking or heating, to fuel for boilers to generate steam and electricity in a turbine. Pyrolysis and gasification are two related forms of thermal treatment where waste materials are heated to high temperatures with limited oxygen availability. The process typically occurs in a sealed vessel under high pressure. Pyrolysis of solid waste converts the material into solid, liquid and gas products. The liquid and gas can be burnt to produce energy or refined into other products. The solid residue (char) can be further refined into products such as activated carbon. Gasification is used to convert organic materials directly into a synthetic gas (syngas) composed of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The gas is then burnt to produce electricity and steam.
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Avoidance and Reduction system
Another important method of waste management is the prevention of waste material being created. Methods of avoidance include reuse of second-hand products, repairing broken items instead of buying new, designing products to be refillable or reusable (such as cotton instead of plastic shopping bags), encouraging consumers to avoid using disposable products (such as disposable cutlery), and designing products that use less material to achieve the same purpose (for example, lightweighting of beverage cans.
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Waste handling and transport system
Waste collection methods vary widely between different countries and regions. Domestic waste collection services are often provided by local government authorities, or by private industry. Some areas, especially those in less developed countries, do not have a formal waste-collection system.
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WASTE is a general term.
It is a noun.
It means an object ---the holder discards or intends to discard.
THIS UNWANTED OBJECTS could include
-rubbish
-trash
-garbage
-junk materials
-plastics materials
-glass materials
etc etc
YOU CANNOT APPLY THE SYSTEMS CONCEPT TO IT.
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THE MANAGEMENT OF THIS WASTE IS A MANAGEMENT PROCESS.
THE SYSTEMS CONCEPT CAN BE APPLIED TO THIS ''waste managment'' PROCESS.
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